called _duplum_, _triplum_, _quadruplum_, and _quintuplum_. =Troubadours=.—The cradle of the French troubadours was in Provence, the south of France. They usually belonged to the nobility, and, instead of performing their own pieces, had them performed by the _jongleurs_, only occasionally consenting to sing for some company of high-born nobles and ladies. We mention a few of those who were counted among the troubadours: Richard the Lion-Hearted, of England, Count William of Poitiers, Rambout, Count of Orange, Pierre d’Auvergne, Pierre Ramon de Toulouse, Pierre Vidal, Pons de Capdueil, poet, singer and violinist, Aimeric de Pequilain, Blagobres, a virtuoso on all instruments, Blondel de Nesle, the Chatelain de Coucy, Thibault, King of Navarre. Clement, the French historian, gives a list of 28 trouvères of the 13th century, less prominent socially than those already mentioned. The most celebrated of them and the most important from the historian’s standpoint is =Adam de La Hale= or =Halle=, born 1240. He wrote many pieces, of which we have thirty-three songs, some rondeaux, six motets, some _Jeux Partis_, among the latter being a work which is regarded as a sort of comic opera, sometimes called the “first opera”: “Robin and Marion”; it consists of dialogue and airs. [Music: AIR FROM ROBIN AND MARION.] [Illustration: INSTRUMENTS OF THE MINNESINGERS.] =Minnesingers=.—While the trouvères and troubadours were singing in Provence and in France, an analogous association was forming in Germany, to which the name Minnesingers (_Minne_, old German, “love”) was given. A list of names belonging to the 13th century includes 162 men, among whom are several occupying thrones. Names that have interest for us are Klingsor, Wolfram von Eschenbach (author of a poem on “Parcival”), Gottfried of Strassburg (author of a poem “Tristan and Isolde”), =Walter von der Vogelweide=, the =Chevalier Tannhaeuser= and Heinrich Meissen, called Frauenlob. Richard Wagner has introduced some of these men in his operas. The versification of the Minnesingers has been much admired by critics; it was filled with art as well as beauty. Their love themes differed from those of the Provençal singers in that while the poetry of the latter declared love as a gallant sentiment, the Germans gave it a loftier tone by mingling it with the Madonna sentiment. =Folk-Song=.—While the German nobles were employing themselves in the service of art, the people were not idle. They had their tunes and their verses. The _Locheimer Liederbuch_ (1452), contains a number of songs, some of which are undoubtedly very old; they are melodious, varied in rhythm and full of naïve simplicity. Some of them are arranged in the popular _three-voice_ style, and show correct part leading, the inclination being _toward our major and minor modes_ instead of the Church Modes. [Illustration: HANS SACHS.]