~Formulas representing water of crystallization.~ An examination of substances containing water of crystallization has shown that in every case the water is present in such proportion by weight as can readily be represented by a formula. For example, copper sulphate (CuSO_{4}) and water combine in the ratio of 1 molecule of the sulphate to 5 of water; calcium sulphate (CaSO_{4}) and water combine in the ratio 1: 2 to form gypsum. These facts are expressed by writing the formulas for the two substances with a period between them. Thus the formula for crystallized copper sulphate is CuSO_{4}.5H_{2}O; that of gypsum is CaSO_{4}.2H_{2}O. ~Heat of reaction.~ Attention has frequently been directed to the fact that chemical changes are usually accompanied by heat changes. In general it has been found that in every chemical action heat is either absorbed or given off. By adopting a suitable unit for the measurement of heat, the heat change during a chemical reaction can be expressed in the equation for the reaction. Heat cannot be measured by the use of a thermometer alone, since the thermometer measures the intensity of heat, not its quantity. The easiest way to measure a quantity of heat is to note how warm it will make a definite amount of a given substance chosen as a standard. Water has been chosen as the standard, and the unit of heat is called a _calorie. A calorie is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree._ By means of this unit it is easy to indicate the heat changes in a given chemical reaction. The equation 2H + O = H_{2}O + 68,300 cal. means that when 2.016 g. of hydrogen combine with 16 g. of oxygen, 18.016 g. of water are formed and 68,300 cal. are set free. C + 2S = CS_{2} - 19,000 cal. means that an expenditure of 19,000 cal. is required to cause 12 g. of carbon to unite with 64.12 g. of sulphur to form 76.12 g. of carbon disulphide. In these equations it will be noted that the symbols stand for as many grams of the substance as there are units in the weights of the atoms represented by the symbols. This is always understood to be the case in equations where the heat of reaction is given. ~Conditions of a chemical action are not indicated by equations.~ Equations do not tell the conditions under which a reaction will take place. The equation HgO = Hg + O does not tell us that it is necessary to keep the mercuric oxide at a high temperature in order that the decomposition may go on. The equation Zn + 2HCl = ZnCl_{2} + 2H in no way indicates the fact that the hydrochloric acid must be dissolved in water before it will act upon the zinc. From the equation H + Cl = HCl