In this figure BC is the incident ray, CE the refracted ray, DG the perpendicular, AD the sine of the angle of incidence ACD, and HR the sine of the angle of refraction GCE. Now, it is a proposition in optics that,--the sine AD of the angle of incidence BCD is either accurately or very nearly in a given proportion to the sine HR of the angle of refraction GCE. This ratio of the sines is as four to three, when the refraction is made out of air into water, that is AD is to HR as four to three. When the refraction is out of air into glass, the proportion is about as thirty-one to twenty, or nearly as three to two. If the refraction be out of air into diamond it is as five to two, that is AD : HR :: 5 : 2. The denser the medium is, the less is the angle and sine of refraction. If a ray of light MC, were to pass from air into water, or from empty space into air, in the direction MC perpendicular to the plane NO which separates the two mediums, it would suffer no refraction, because one of the essentials to that effect is wanting, namely, the _obliquity_ of the incidence. It may be also proper to remark, that a ray of light cannot pass out of a denser medium into a rarer, if the angle of incidence exceed a certain limit. Thus a ray of light will not pass out of glass into air, if the angle of incidence exceed 40° 11´; or out of glass into water, if the angle of incidence exceed 59° 20´. In such cases refraction will be changed into reflection. The following common experiments, which are easily performed, will illustrate the doctrine of refraction. Put a shilling or any other small object which is easily distinguished, into a bason or any other similar vessel, and then retire to such a distance as that the edge of the vessel shall just hide it from your sight. If then you cause another person to fill the vessel with water, you will then find that the shilling is rendered perfectly visible, although you have not in the slightest degree changed your position. The reason of this is, that the rays of light, by which it is rendered visible, _are bent out of their course_. Thus, suppose the shilling to have been placed in the bottom of the bason at E, (fig. 2.) the ray of light BC which passes obliquely from the air into water at C, instead of continuing its course to K, takes the direction CE, and consequently an object at E would be rendered visible by rays proceeding in that direction, when they would not have touched it had they proceeded in their direct course.