In Sparta physical culture was a stern business and could by no means be styled a pastime; it was almost the sole requisite of education. But it was in Sparta that professional athletics were held in least favor. Spartan authorities did not delude themselves; being thoroughly in earnest to produce a race that was hardy and valiant to the last degree, and regarding physical culture as a serious and all-engrossing business rather than an exciting amusement, they quickly discerned that the specialism of professional athletics was detrimental to this end. The greatness and welfare of the state was the standard whereby all Spartan life was regulated. The needs of the state were ever uppermost in the minds of Spartan authorities. They neither deluded themselves in their estimate of these needs, nor did they even dream of a compassion that would deter them from establishing and executing regulations whereby these needs would be met. In Sparta the unfortunate individual who did not conform in promise or attainment to the criterion of a Spartan citizen found no pity. And what was the criterion of the Spartan citizen? It was the man, without defect of body, who had learned not merely to stifle outward show of fear, but who had early learned to be absolutely fearless, who had learned to be calm while suffering agonizing pain; it was the man whose powers of endurance were very great, who could march long distances over a rough country without fatigue, who could then halt and await the onset of an enemy with a glad and confident heart, and who could engage his enemy and be victorious; it was the man who loved combat. The Spartan state possessed absolute authority over its citizens through all stages of their lives. Even before birth that authority was exerted; for the state prescribed the age at which citizens should marry, and approved or vetoed all propositions of marriage. If at the present day we exercised the same care to bring sound children into the world there would be little need of being “born again.” Spartan infants were subjected to the judgment of a body of selected citizens, and if approved by the latter became thenceforth the objects of the care and direction of the state, but if condemned as not promising health and vigor they were killed. According to Plutarch unhealthy infants were exposed in the apothetæ, a sort of chasm under Taygetos (Ταΰγετος) and left to die. Until the age of seven, Spartan children were left to the care of their parents, but even during this early period they received a foretaste of future deprivations and exercises. Their food was very plain and limited in quantity. Care was taken to eradicate the little fears of childhood. They were taught not to be afraid in the dark or when left alone.