(4) _Renewal of Filter-Beds._ After a certain time the filter-bed becomes worn out and inefficient; at such times renewal is necessary. Not only may the age of the filter act prejudicially, but the extra pressure required will tend to force through it bacteria which ought to have remained in the filter. In 1893, Koch brought out his monograph upon _Water Filtration and Cholera_, and his work had a deservedly great influence upon the whole question. He shows how the careful filtration of water supplied to Altona from the Elbe saved the town from the epidemic of cholera which came upon Hamburg as a result of drinking unfiltered water, although Altona is situated several miles below Hamburg, and its drinking water is taken from the river after it has received the sewage of Hamburg. Now, from his experience of water filtration, Koch arrived at several important conclusions. In the first place, he maintained that the _portion of the filter-bed which really removed micro-organisms effectively was the slimy organic layer upon the surface_. This layer is produced by a deposit from the still unpurified water lying immediately above it. The most vital part of the filter-bed is this organic layer, which, after formation, should not be disturbed until it requires removal owing to its impermeability. A filter-bed, as is well known, consists of say three feet of sand and one foot of coarse gravel. The water to be filtered is collected into large reservoirs, where subsidence by gravitation occurs. Thence it is led by suitable channels to the surface of the filter-bed. Having passed through the three or four feet of the bed, it is collected in a storage reservoir and awaits distribution. The action of the whole process is both mechanical and chemical. Mechanically by subsidence, much suspended matter is left behind in the reservoir. Again, mechanically, much of that which remained suspended in the water when it reached the filter-bed is waylaid in the substance of the sand and gravel of the filter-bed. Chemically also the action is twofold. Oxidation of the organic matter occurs to some extent as the water passes through the sand. Until recently this chemical action and the double mechanical action were believed to be the complete process, and its efficiency was tested by chemical oxidation and alteration, and absence of the suspended matter.