The same means of commerce and communication which have increased the size of industrial groups and extended the range of commercial transactions have also enlarged the political units and increased interdependence between them. We are living in a world in which a financial depression in America results in a panic upon the silk exchange of Tokio; in which a boycott upon cotton goods initiated by a Gandhi in India throws thousands of cotton spinners in Manchester into unemployment; and in which Western industrialism may exploit Chinese labor in the seaports of China without one beneficiary of this industrialism out of a million being able to make a mental picture of the social consequences of the commercial policies from which he benefits. The difficulty of these long-range relationships is further complicated by the fact that the participants are separated not only by great distances but by the barriers of race and nationality. All social decencies in the past have developed within the bounds of the group, and men have not yet learned to treat individuals in other groups with confidence, respect and honesty. Attitudes of tenderness, sympathy and affection have been confined very largely to the family group. From this intimate group they were finally sluiced out to effect social relations in larger groups, but they have not changed inter-group relations. Civilization has increased the size of groups in which human relations have an ethical basis, but it has not moralized the action of the group nor taught individuals in one social group to treat individuals in other groups with the respect and confidence which a wholesome social life requires. The connotation of contempt which the Jews placed in the word “gentile” and the Greeks in the word “barbarian” may be matched in the terminology of practically every people. When groups are geographically separated, as in the case of political states, fear and misunderstanding are multiplied by the ignorance which results from a lack of contacts. But contacts alone do not remove them; for the relations of political, social and racial groups within the boundaries of the same state are only slightly more ethical, as for instance the relation between white and colored people in the United States or of the Scotch and Irish in Ulster. Human imagination and intelligence have not been equal to the task of extending ethical attitudes beyond the boundaries of the group.