See M. Manitius, _Geschichte der christlich-lateinischen Poesie_ (1891); A. Ebert, _Allgemeine Geschichte der Literatur des Mittelalters_, vol. i. (1889); editions of Juvencus by C. Marold (1886); J. Humer in _Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum_, vol. xxiv. (Vienna, 1891); J. T. Hatfield, _A Study of Juvencus_ (1890), dealing with syntax, metre and language; editions of the _Heptateuch_ by J. E. B. Mayor (1889; reviewed by W. Sanday in _Classical Review_, October 1889, and by J. T. Hatfield in _American Journal of Philology_, vol. xi., 1890), and R. Peiper, vol. xxiii. of the Vienna series above. JUVENILE OFFENDERS. In modern social science the question of the proper penal treatment of juvenile (i.e. non-adult) offenders has been increasingly discussed; and the reformatory principle, first applied in the case of children, has even been extended to reclaimable adult offenders (juveniles in crime, if not in age) in a way which brings them sufficiently within the same category to be noticed in this article. In the old days the main idea in England was to use the same penal methods for all criminals, young and old; when the child broke the law he was sent to prison like his elders. It was only in comparatively recent times that it was realized that child criminals were too often the victims to circumstances beyond their own control. They were cursed with inherited taint; they were brought up among evil surroundings; they suffered from the culpable neglect of vicious parents, and still more from bad example and pernicious promptings. They were rather potential than actual criminals, calling for rescue and regeneration rather than vindictive reprisals. Under the old system a painstaking English gaol chaplain calculated that 58% of all criminals had made their first lapse at fifteen. Boys and girls laughed at imprisonment. Striplings of thirteen and fourteen had been committed ten, twelve, sixteen or seventeen times. Religion and moral improvement were little regarded in prisons, industrial and technical training were impossible. The chief lesson learnt was an intimate and contemptuous acquaintance with the demoralizing interior of a gaol. There were at one time in London 200 "flash houses" frequented by 6000 boys trained and proficient in thieving and depredation.