The geological surveys of Great Britain and Ireland were connected from 1832 to 1853 with the ordnance survey, but are now carried on independently. The ordnance survey, too, no longer depends on the war office but upon the board of agriculture and fisheries. A _Bathymetrical Survey of the Freshwater Lochs of Scotland_, under the direction of Sir John Murray and L. Pullar, was completed in 1908, and the results published by the Royal Geographical Society. France. Proposals for a new map of France, to replace the famous Cassini map of 1744-1793 were made in 1802 and again by R. Bonne in 1808, but owing to the wars then devastating Europe no steps were taken until 1817, and the _Carte de France de l'état major_ on a scale of 1:80,000 was only completed in 1880. It is engraved on copper. The hachured hills are based upon contours, and are of admirable commensurability. It has served as a basis for a _Carte de la France_, published by the Service Vicinal on a scale of 1:100,000, in 596 sheets, and of a general map prepared by the ministère des travaux publics on a scale of 1:200,000 in 80 sheets. On both these maps the hills are printed in grey chalk. A third topographical map of France is being published in accordance with the recommendation of a committee presided over by General de la Noix in 1897. The surveys for this map were begun in 1905. The maps are based upon the cadastral plans (1:1000), thoroughly revised and connected with the triangulation of France and furnished with contours at intervals of 5 m. by precise measurement. These _minutes_ are published on a scale of 1:10,000 or 1:20,000 for mountain districts, while the scale of the general map is 1:50,000. Each sheet is bounded by parallels and meridians. The hills are shown in brown contours at intervals of 10 m. and grey shading in chalk (Berthaut, _La Carte de France, 1750-1898_; Paris, 1899). A geological map of France on a scale of 1:80,000 is nearly completed, there are also a map (1:500,000) by Carez and Vasseur, and an official _Carte géologique_ (1:1,000,000; 1906). Germany.