more palmy state than the feudal monarchy of our neighbours under the early princes of the house of Capet. Louis VI. and VII. had but the shadow of royalty; the Williams and the early Henries grasped a real sceptre. It may seem inconsistent with this that at the period in question the French monarch ruled without a parliament, while the Norman princes convoked the peers of the realm to aid them in conducting affairs; but this very difference, in fact, arose from the independence of the French and the subjection of the English crown vassals. The barons of France cared not to attend upon the king's council, since no law emanating thence could bind them without their personal consent; but the barons of England were constrained to attend upon the royal summons, for if they remained absent, they were still bound to obey any laws that might be made. Another characteristic of English feudalism remains to be noticed. In addition to the usual feudal incidents, such as reliefs, fines, alienations, and aids, two other customs, which probably had before existed in Normandy, prevailed in England. These were, certain claims connected with wardship and marriage. The lord of the fief was the guardian of the heir during his minority; he had the custody of his person and his lands, without rendering any account of the use made of the profits. In the case of a male, the guardianship continued till the minor arrived at the age of twenty-one; in the case of a female, it terminated at the age of fourteen, when the young lady could marry, and her husband do suit and service for her. But before she attained that age, her lord could offer her in marriage to whom he pleased, provided it was without disparagement or inequality of rank; and if she refused the alliance, she had to forfeit from her estate just so much as the person to whom her hand had been offered would have given for the match. The penalty was still more severe if she married without the baron's consent; for, in that case, a fine, equal to double what an alliance with her was valued at, was exacted by her ruthless sovereign. In addition to all this, the feudal lord in England extended his authority over the daughters of all his vassals, not allowing any of them to be married but on condition of the payment of a certain sum; so that marriages yielded him an abundant harvest of revenue.