Many objects of secular art, and articles that the wealthy could afford to use in every-day life, were made in ivory during the Middle Ages, such as book-covers, toilet-combs, mirror-cases, chessmen, horns, hilts of knives, swords, and daggers, caskets, small coffers, &c., in addition to the objects required for use in religious ceremonies, as pyxes, croziers, crucifixes, crosses, and taus, the latter being an early form of the pastoral staff. The pastoral staffs of ivory are not very common, and most examples known belong to the thirteenth century. [Illustration: Fig. 116.—Pastoral Staff; German, Thirteenth Century. (S.K.M.)] The woodcut (Fig. 116) of the pastoral staff shows the subject of the Crucifixion on one side and the Virgin and Child with attendant angels on the other. It is German work of the thirteenth century, and is now in the Cathedral of Metz. An older specimen of the pastoral staff, which Mr. Maskell thinks is English work, is carved in bone with interlacing scrolls, and has a grotesque and serpent forming the crook decorations (Fig. 117). [Illustration: Fig. 117.—Pastoral Staff; Bone Caning, English; Twelfth Century.] In the fourteenth century ivory carvings were in great demand, judging from the great number of the various ivories of that date which have been preserved. Belonging to this period are the beautiful ivory hunting horns called “oliphants” (from elephant) that were much used by kings and nobles in hunting, and were sometimes mounted in gold. The ivory carvings known as pierced or “open-work” are usually of very fine and delicate workmanship. The illustration (Fig. 118) shows two compartments of a larger plaque in the Kensington Museum, the full size of the originals that have sacred figures under Gothic canopies of fourteenth-century work. It is not known exactly to what country they belong, as ivory carvings as a rule are undated and unsigned, but the woodcut (Fig. 119) represents an undoubted piece of English work. It is one leaf of a diptych made for Grandison, Bishop of Exeter. [Illustration: Fig. 118.—Ivory Carving; Fourteenth Century Pierced Work. (S.K.M.)] Few names of artists, as ivory carvers, have come down to us from the Middle Ages. One named Jean Lebraellier was the carver to Charles V. of France; Jehan Nicolle is another who has signed his name on an ivory pax in the British Museum. Henry des Grès was a “pignier” or carver of combs (1391). Héliot has dated work of 1392. Henry de Senlis, “tabletier,” plaque carver of 1454, and Philip Daniel, “pignier” and “tabletier” (1484), in Paris. [Illustration: Fig. 119.—Ivory Diptych; English Work; Fourteenth Century. (S.K.M.)]