%(b) Bacon%.--The founder of the empirical philosophy of modern times was Francis Bacon (1561-1626), a contemporary of Shakespeare. Bacon began his political career by sitting in Parliament for many years under Queen Elizabeth, as whose counsel he was charged with the duty of engaging in the prosecution of his patron, the Earl of Essex, and at whose command he prepared a justification of the process. Under James I, he attained the highest offices and honors, being made Keeper of the Great Seal in 1617, Lord Chancellor and Baron Verulam in 1618, and Viscount St. Albans in 1621. In this last year came his fall. He was charged with bribery, and condemned; the king remitted the imprisonment and fine, and for the remainder of his life Bacon devoted himself to science, rejecting every suggestion toward a renewal of his political activity. The moral laxity of the times throws a mitigating light over his fault; but he cannot be aquitted of self-seeking, love of money and of display, and excessive ambition. As Macaulay says in his famous essay, he was neither malignant nor tyrannical, but he lacked warmth of affection and elevation of sentiment; there were many things which he loved more than virtue, and many which he feared more than guilt. He first gained renown as an author by his ethical, economic, and political _Essays_, after the manner of Montaigne; of these the first ten appeared in 1597, in the third edition (1625) increased to fifty-eight; the Latin translation bears the title _Sermones Fideles_. His great plan for a "restoration of the sciences" was intended to be carried out in four, or rather, in six parts. But only the first two parts of the _Instauratio Magna_ were developed: the _encyclopaedia_, or division of all sciences[1], a chart of the _globus intellectualis_, on which was depicted what each science had accomplished and what still remained for each to do; and the development of the _new method_. Bacon published his survey of the circle of the sciences in the English work, the _Advancement of Learning_, 1605, a much enlarged revision of which, _De Dignitate et Augmentis Scientiarum_, appeared in Latin in 1623. In 1612 he printed as a contribution to methodology the draft, _Cogitata et Visa_ (written 1607), later recast into the [first book of the] _Novum Organum_, 1620. This title, _Novum Organum_, of itself indicates opposition to Aristotle, whose logical treatises had for ages been collected under the title _Organon_. If in this work Bacon had given no connected exposition of his reforming principles, but merely a series of aphorisms, and this an incomplete one, the remaining parts are still more fragmentary, only prefaces and scattered contributions having been reduced to writing. The third part was to have been formed by a description of the world or natural _history, Historia Naturalis_, and the last,--introduced by a _Scala Intellectus_ (ladder of knowledge, illustrations of the method