Much the same backbone-showing of continents yet to be filled out was true of Europe, Asia, and South America. In Europe the northern countries constituted all that could be called continental land. Most of Norway, Sweden, Finland, Lapland, existed then, while the northern half of Scotland, the outer Hebrides, portions of Ireland, England, France, and Germany stood out as detached islands. From this, which is a fair sample of the proportion of land then to land now over the other continents so far as they are geologically known, we turn to consider more in detail the history of North America. By the time the Upper Silurian period came in, the Appalachian highlands there had been greatly extended and joined to the Labradorian mainland by continuous territory; otherwise, no important addition had occurred, though islands emerged in Ohio, Kentucky, and Missouri. [Illustration: North America at the opening of the Upper Silurian. (From Dana’s “Manual of Geology.”)] At the commencement of the Carbonic era what are now the Middle states had begun to fill up from the north, and Newfoundland, from a small island in the Upper Silurian, had become a great promontory of Labrador, while the Eastern states region and Nova Scotia had risen into being. The movements closing Paleozoic time upheaved from low islands the Appalachian chain. The earth’s crust here crumpled by contraction upon itself; and the movement ended, as Dana says, by making dry land of the whole eastern half of the continent, along substantially its present lines. [Illustration: Map of North America after the Appalachian Revolution. (From Dana’s “Manual of Geology.”)] Mesozoic time was the period of the making of the West. It was an era of deposition and coincident subsidence, when the western land had its nose just above water at one moment to be submerged the next. Though on the whole this part of the continent was emerging, the fact was that, synchronously with the sinking of the sea, much of the land from time to time sank too. The contraction which raised the Appalachian Mountains at the beginning of the period and that of the Rockies at its close overdid the necessities of the case and caused subsidence elsewhere. The southeastern portion of the continent suffered most, the West on the whole materially gaining. In the Triassic and Jurassic eras the gain was pronounced; it occurred in the Cretaceous also, but with much alternation of loss. Finally, at the close of the Cretaceous, the continent, except for a prolonged Gulf of Mexico and vast internal lakes, was substantially complete. [Illustration: North America in the Cretaceous period. (From Dana’s “Manual of Geology.”)]