Section X. Wealth.—Signs Of National Wealth. We should have a very imperfect idea of the wealth of a people (§ 8) if we should estimate it at the value in exchange of the sum(99)-total of the component parts of the national resources. By the following signs, however, an approximative notion of the value in use of the resources of a nation may be obtained: A. When, even the lower classes, who compose everywhere the greatest portion of the people, are comfortable, in a condition worthy of human beings. Thus, C. Dupin is surprised at the great quantities of meat, butter, cheese and tea entered on the accounts of the poor-houses in England, and the great care taken to have these of the best quality.(100) A good symptom of such a state of things is a high average duration of human life, especially when there is a relatively large number of births. (§ 246.) B. When a considerable outlay, devoted to the satisfaction of the more refined wants, is voluntarily made, and by those only possessed of a proper economic sense. Thus, in England, the various mission, bible, and tract societies had, in 1841, an aggregate income of £630,000. The expeditions in search of Franklin cost over a million pounds sterling. The state outlay also belongs to this category, provided, that taxes are collected and loans obtained, without any noticeable oppression. The sum of 20,000,000 pounds sterling, voted, in 1833, by the British Parliament for the abolition of slavery, is one of the happiest signs of the national wealth of England.(101) C. A large number of valuable buildings, and permanent improvements; for instance, roads of every description, works for purposes of irrigation and drainage. Thus, in London, from September, 1843, to September, 1845, there were constructed squares and streets with an aggregate length of 11.1 geographical miles. The number of newly built houses in London, between 1843 and 1847, was nearly 27,000. And so, in England and Wales there are 492 geographical miles of navigable canals, while their navigable rivers are estimated to have a length of only 449 miles. The number of miles of railroad, in the British Empire, in 1865, was 2,897 geographical miles, and they cost 459 million of pounds; in 1870, it was 3,270 geographical miles, at an aggregate cost of 650 millions sterling. D. The frequent occurrence of heavy commercial payments, which finds expression especially in the magnitude and costliness of the most usual medium of exchange. Thus, all payments are made in England in paper (for sums of at least five pounds sterling) or in gold coin. Silver is used only as small change, like copper in most other countries. (_Infra_, § 118, seq.)(102) E. Frequent loans to foreign nations. Hence, Storch divides all countries into borrowing or poor countries, loaning or rich countries, and independent countries which hold a middle place between the two former.(103) Section XI.