"Islam," says Adolph Wuttke, "finds its place in the history of the religious and moral spirit, not as a vital organic member, but as violently interrupting the course of this history, and which is to be regarded as an attempt of heathenism to maintain itself erect under an outward monotheistic form against Christianity." The ethics of Islam bear the character of an outwardly and crudely conceived doctrine of righteousness. Conscientiousness in the sphere of the social relations, faithfulness to conviction and to one's word, and the bringing of an action into relation to God are its bright points; but there is a lack of heart-depth of a basing of the moral in love. The highest good is the outwardly and very sensuously conceived happiness of the individual. Among Islamites the potency of sin is not recognized; evil is only an individual, not a historical, power; hence there is no need of redemption, but only of personal works on the basis of prophetic instruction. Mohammed is only a teacher, not an atoner. God and man remain strictly external to and separate from each other. God, no less individually conceived of than man, comes into no real communion with man; and as moral, acts not as influenced by such a communion, but only as an isolated individual. The ideal basis of the moral is faith in God and in his Prophet; the moral life, conceived as mainly consisting in external works, is not a fruit of received salvation, but a means for the attainment of the same. Pious works, particularly prayer, fasting, and almsgiving, and pilgrimage to Mecca, work salvation directly of themselves. Man has nothing to receive from God but the Word, and nothing to do for God but good works; of inner sanctification there is no thought. Thus, among Islamites today we find, instead of true humility, only proud work-righteousness. Nothing but the enjoyment of wine, of swine-flesh, of the blood of strangled animals, and games of chance are forbidden. After this summary of the real character of Mohammedan ethics, an account of its practical teaching and effect will make the picture more vivid to the reader, although still darker. THE MOSLEM IDEA OF SIN Moslem doctors define sin as "a conscious act of a responsible being against known law." They divide sin into "great" and "little" sins. Some say there are seven great sins: idolatry, murder, false charges of adultery, wasting the substance of orphans, taking interest on money, desertion from Jihad, and disobedience to parents. Mohammed himself said, "The greatest of sins before God is that you call another like unto the God who created you, or that you murder your child from an idea that he or she will eat your victuals, or that you commit adultery with your neighbor's wife."