The passing of energy into the form of heat takes place in that which we call friction, and in all those modes in which any movement is brought to a standstill. But so far from these being simply “hindrances” to motion, it is through them that we learn that which makes motion possible. It is with us as with the inhabitants of the valley, the gradual cessation of feeling from their life and the modes in which it ceased were the way in which they regarded the action of the king who was the cause of all. We have thought of motion as a thing in itself impaired by the multitudinous obstacles it meets in the world. Let us look on the circumstances more impartially. Let us look on them as something co-equal with motion. Let us find in that mode whereby all motion comes to an end the originating cause also whereby all motion comes to be. The passing of the motion of masses into the form of heat is the ultimate permission. CHAPTER III. If we reflect cautiously on the history of our opinions, we find that we often fall into error in respect to our freedom in attributing causes. If we are unfortunate we are apt to look on our neighbours, or the world, or, if we are of a self-depreciatory turn of mind, ourselves as the cause. Again in past times people really felt sure about certain things being causes which we now know had a very slight connection with the result. Incantations have been supposed to have an effect on physical phenomena, such as eclipses. Numbers and their properties have really been conceived as the causes of the modes of existence. Ideas have been supposed to have causative power over the order of the world. We should be very careful in attributing the notion of causation. If we see a stone lying on the ground, and proceed to pick it up by the strength of the arm, we say that the exertion of the arm is the cause of the stone being lifted. But in this respect even we are too hasty. The arm may exert itself and yet the stone not be lifted up—if it is too heavy. All that we can say about it is that if the stone is lifted, a certain set of muscular actions has gone on in the arm, and a certain movement of the stone has taken place. If we look closely at the matter, the movements in the arm are related to the movements in the stone in a strictly measurable way. There has been so much exertion corresponding to the weight of the stone. But suppose the arm had done anything else, there would have been the same relation traceable between the movements in the arm and the actions which followed its movements. The energy spent by the arm would be equal to the energy imparted to the object moved, whether it be a stone sent flying through the air, or one lifted to a higher position (bearing in mind always the small quantity of energy passing off in the form of heat).