Simpson searched into ancient history in order to ascertain the methods, if any, by which in remote and mediaeval times surgeons sought to prevent the pain of operations. The most time-honoured method seems to have been by the internal administration of drugs, the chief one used being Indian hemp, which was well known in the East, and under one of its names _haschish_ gave origin to the term assassin (strictly eater of haschish). A certain Arab Sheikh got together a band of followers to whom he administered haschish, which produced in them its usual effect--beautiful dreams of a delightful paradise. He induced them to believe so thoroughly in his power to gain for them at death permanent entrance to this paradise that they obeyed all his ferocious and bloodthirsty behests. Thus these assassins became known as men obedient to their leader in any murderous enterprise. Indian hemp was, and still is, used as a luxury all over the East, as well as to annul pain, and was used by criminals doomed to torture or execution. Simpson thought the _nepenthe_ of Homer was a preparation of this drug; he also refers to the fact that Herodotus relates that the Massagetae inhaled the vapour of burning hemp to produce intoxication and pleasurable excitement. Mandrake was used in a similar manner and for similar purposes as Indian hemp in the Middle Ages, but it fell into disuse on account of the fatal results that often followed. It is frequently referred to by Shakspeare both for its narcotic properties and for its fabulous power of uttering a scream when torn up by the roots, to hear which meant death or madness. Simpson cited also well-known passages from Shakspeare to prove that the practice of "locking up the spirits a time" was known to that poet. In later days the intoxication produced by alcohol was taken advantage of, and instances of its use have been known in quite recent years in the Colonies, where both a surgeon and chloroform were out of reach. No drug, however, was known to be of such value in producing anaesthesia as to be constantly used, and many trials were made of other means, notably that of compressing the nerves supplying the part to be operated upon, but this was found to be too painful in itself. The stupor produced by compressing the carotid arteries--a method taken advantage of by the ruffians known as garotters--was also put in practice for a time during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but it was found too barbarous a method even for those days. Hypnotism was known to the Indians, Egyptians, and Persians at a very remote period, and may possibly have been used by them sometimes to produce anaesthesia for surgical purposes. Simpson was attracted by the words of the poet Middleton in his tragedy "Women, beware Women" (1617) where he says-- "I'll imitate the pities of old surgeons To this lost limb--who ere they show their art Cast me asleep, then cut the diseased part."