The function of some drugs is to produce mental effects, visions, hallucinations, dreams, and phantoms. The logical assumption is that the ancients knew certain rule-of-thumb methods of utilizing some forms of these drugs in such a way as to loosen the hold of the body (and the consciousness) upon the mind, and to produce an artificial state of clairvoyance. The wizard of the Middle Ages was also a doctor, and it is claimed that the familiar that inhabited the sword of Paracelsus--which sword he always had by him and could never be parted from--was none other than a certain amount of opium concealed in the hollow pommel.[33] The function of hypnotic drugs is known to a point. That is to say, we know what effect is produced on a normal individual by a given dose of an unknown drug, but in nine cases out of ten we do not know precisely how this effect is brought about and have few clues to the series of physiological reactions that bring about the mental state. The connection between a physical draught and a mental state is indicated throughout the history of magic. Ceremonial libations, ritual consumption of potions or “devil’s brews” of one kind and another are part and parcel of the traditions of necromancy and sorcery. The connection between these hypnotic draughts and the practice of poisoning was not clearly perceived by most writers of the past. Sorcery and poisoning were indeed twin practices of the Middle Ages, for where the spell might fail white arsenic would succeed, but it is not fair to class all magical potions as preparations of secret poisons, although in point of fact most of the hypnotic drugs are toxic. The methods of administering the drugs are two--namely, by draught, that is to say by direct consumption, and inhalation. The function of the incense used in thaumaturgical ceremonies was primarily to intoxicate the audience. Just as the Pythoness of the Delphic oracles inhaled the vapours of the magic cave, so the Egyptians inhaled prepared incenses in their temples. The casting of herbs upon the fire, the burning of prepared sacrificial candles or flambeaux, all these play their part in the mechanical induction of the psychic state. Frankincense and myrrh, and in particular gum benzoin, possess soothing properties that affect the throat and nasal passages. Besides being pleasant, these gums formed an excellent vehicle for disguising the scent of other matters and preventing their spasmodic or instant action on the throat. The kyphic or incense of ancient Egypt[34] was compounded of myrrh, gum-mastic, aromatic rush roots, resin, and juniper berries. To these aromatics were added small quantities of symbolic elements, such as grapes, honey and wine, and a portion of bitumen or _asphateum_, whose purpose might be either symbolic or to serve as a binding medium for the mass.