ships in bulk was later successfully adopted by other shipowners and continued in practice until 1878. The genesis of the modern tanker dates from the launching of the _Atlantic_ at St. Peter’s on the Tyne, Yorkshire, in August 1863. In the record of this launching it was set forth that the vessel was specifically designed to carry petroleum in bulk “without the aid of casks” but there is no evidence that she was ever put into commission. The real beginning seems to have been made with the Belgian ship, the _Charles_, which is believed to have been the first ocean going ship to be fitted with iron tanks for the transport of petroleum and to be equipped with pumps for unloading the cargo. She was a sailing vessel and her capacity has been estimated as high as 7000 barrels in bulk. Between 1869 and 1872 she plied between New York and European ports. By 1878 the business of carrying oil in iron ships specially built for that purpose, or in converted vessels like the _Charles_ had become definitely established and barrel-carrying ships had practically disappeared from American harbours. At first oil was carried only on sailing vessels, owing to the supposed danger of fire; but gradually adjustments were made which rendered it feasible to propel oil ships by steam. The growth of the petroleum industry in the ’eighties made it clear that the converted oil ship was uneconomical and somewhat dangerous. Leakages in such vessels produced gases that sometimes caused explosions; and one curious fact was demonstrated, namely, that there was greater menace in an empty oil ship than in a full one, for the reason that the exposed surface from which explosive gases might emanate was infinitely greater. When an oil ship of scientific model was filled to capacity the only danger points were the hatches through which it had been filled; whereas when empty, especially if there had been carelessness in unloading, the explosive area and the possible formation of gas-producing deposits was greatly increased. With the converted ships the chances of leakage were necessarily many, owing to numerous and inaccessible waste spaces outside the tanks. This led shippers to insist on improved tankers built in such a way that absolute control could be exercised over every drop of oil on board the vessel, and over every emanation of gas given off by that oil. Much ingenuity was displayed by ship-builders in meeting this requirement and the modern tanker has the two great merits of being absolutely free from the risks of waste and danger.