The Reformation was promoted by the Renaissance, essentially a critical examination of traditional views. While this movement had not a very deep influence on the Jews, it did not pass entirely unnoticed. Elijah Mizrahi, Chief Rabbi of Constantinople (1455-1525), took notice of the Copernican system, and in his supercommentary on Rashi, tried to harmonize this modern conception of the cosmos with Rabbinic statements. He also wrote a text-book of arithmetic, a commentary on Euclid’s elements, an astronomical book, besides various Talmudic works. More evident is the influence on Elijah Levita, born in Neustadt-an-der-Aisch, Bavaria, 1468, died in Venice, 1549. Elijah Levita was a teacher of many prominent Christian theologians, both Catholic and Protestant, then very much interested in the study of Hebrew. He wrote various works on Hebrew grammar, among them “Bahur” (1518), a glossary of Rabbinic words, “Tishbi” (1541), and a book on the Massorah, “Massoret ha-Massoret” (1548), in which he laid down the bold and since that time generally-accepted theory that the vowel points and accents were not invented until the eighth century. He was also a writer of popular works, translated the Psalms into Judæo-German and published the Bobo book, a translation of an Italian romance based on the English story of “Sir Bevis of Hampton,” underlying Shakespeare’s “Hamlet” (1540). Another exponent of the Renaissance was Azariah dei Rossi of Ferrara (1511-1578), who in his work, “Meor Enayim,” a collection of critical essays, defended the theory that the Talmudic writings are not authoritative on matters of history and science, but merely on Rabbinic law. Joseph Solomo del Medigo, born in Crete, 1591, died at Prague, 1655, was an ambiguous character and adventurer, a wanderer during most of his life. In his work, “Elim” (1629), he had the courage to criticize Rabbinic theology, and especially the Kabbala. Leon Modena of Venice (1571-1648), who was a very prolific author, went still further, attacking the Rabbinic law as in many instances incongruous with the Bible, and recommending a change of the religious practices. In the works which he published he merely indicated his liberal ideas; he clearly stated them in works that remained unpublished for two centuries.