I am concerned with the safeguards for equality within a State, and so I need say little or nothing of the Gallican system, which was intended to secure liberty against foreign intrusion. It was the liberty claimed by a church, which refused toleration to other denominations; the protests of a national Church part of Catholicism against the intrusion of the Papacy; it was the assertion of claims, which, to quote Saint Simon, “_blessent douloureusement la Cour de Rome_”; assertions of the doctrine that the French kings were in secular matters independent of the Pope, and that the Pope’s spiritual authority was limited by the laws of the church. In some countries, churches have secured a large measure of religious liberty or autonomy by means of Concordats with the civil Power. The typical case is that of the Catholic Church in France, where such a system may be said to have existed from the Concordat of Bologna, concluded between Francis I. and Leo X. in 1516, until recent times, with the exception of a short break at the Revolution; they may be said to have established an offensive and defensive alliance between Church and State. I come to systems and devices chiefly used in modern times to secure religious liberty or equality. They are to be found in particular in countries possessing written constitutions. Either they lay down with more or less clearness principles of religious equality, or, dealing specifically with some pressing danger or difficulty, they provide a safeguard as to it. The first striking example of this kind of restriction is to be found in America. Dread of the existence of an established Church and of its ultimate effects upon republican institutions was shared by the framers of the United States Constitution and most of the framers of the States Constitutions. The provision which Jefferson caused to be inserted in the Virginia Bill of Rights and the article in the Massachusetts Declaration of Rights have been copied with variations by the States. Speaking generally, they provide for equality of treatment of religious denominations (Stimson, “Federal and State Constitutions,” p. 137). In the Constitution of the United States there is only one Article on the subject (Amendment, Article 1). “Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment(87) of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.” In the United States true equality exists; all denominations are treated alike; the modern tendency towards equality has triumphed as the result partly of national habits and partly of constitutional restrictions.