by Maurer points to a partition amongst “associates of the mark,” or to a partition which replaced an earlier system of undivided property by one of private ownership. We must, accordingly, recognise that it is a mere hypothesis to suppose that land was ever held in common by a group of associates; that the only established certain fact is the existence of private property, which rests on the evidence of all the laws and all the charters; and that there is nothing to suggest that this state of things was the outcome of a primitive system of community. As far back as the day when the word _mark_ first appears in documentary evidence, and throughout that evidence, the system of private property is everywhere in possession of the field. We would not say, however, that there are no examples of land held in common; and we must now see what was the character of this common ownership. It was of two sorts. Of the first kind an example is afforded by a document of 815 cited by Maurer, in which occur the words _silvæ communionem_; a certain Wigbald makes a gift of a _mansus_, and of his share of a forest.[128] Another example which he refers to is a forest belonging to three _villæ_ in common.[129] We are told also of a Count Hugo who bestows all his possessions in the villa of Brunno as well as “the three quarters of the _marca silvatica_ which make up his share.”[130] Another less rich can only give a _huba_, but he gives at the same time the portion of the forest to which his huba has a right.[131] We might also refer to a case in which a forest was held in common by two proprietors of two domains down to the year 1184, when a division was effected by a judicial decision.[132] There were, then, forests common to several persons; but that does not justify us in saying that all forests were common to every one; for we have documents without number in which a man gives away or sells a forest that clearly belongs to himself alone. We must also remember that when we read that a forest was common, it does not mean common to everyone, but only common to a _villa_, or perhaps to two or three _villae_,[133] so that the owners of these _villae_ alone have any rights over it.[134] Now, supposing several persons are joint-owners of a forest, this is a very different thing from a system of community in land. Each of them has rights over the forest exactly in proportion to the amount of his property.[135] “So much for every _huba_,” says one document. In another a man makes a gift of all he has inherited in a villa, together with his share, a twelfth, of a forest.[136] All the forests here spoken of are nothing more than appendages to property. We must not be misled by the expression “common forest;” which means no more than that the forest was the property of several persons exercising over it all the rights of ownership, even the right of selling their shares (as we see in hundreds of documents) without having to ask the leave of