It is not known exactly how long a history the water-mark has; the first evidence of one, in the form of a ram’s horn, is said to have been found in a book of accounts in 1330. Simple designs of common objects, such as a pot, urn, or jug, were popular forms of the water-mark in early days. Mention has already been made of Henry VIII. and the curious method he adopted of showing his contempt for the Pope, by having his paper marked with a hog wearing a miter. ♦Origin of “fool’s cap”♦ Then followed the coat-of-arms of the king, and when Charles I. was driven from the throne and beheaded, the “fool’s cap” and bells was in derision substituted for the royal arms, followed later by the figure of Britannia. Changing water-marks in those days meant stirring history. “Pot” paper had a tankard for its water-mark, and the “fool’s cap” gave its name to a larger sized paper, which has borne the name to the present day. “Post” was the old size made for letters, and bore a “post-horn” as its water-mark, the name being preserved to-day in the United States by “folio-post.” “Crown” paper, as its name suggests, bore the water-mark of a crown. In recent years, water-marks have been used as a means of designating the manufacturer, rather than for the purpose of distinguishing the paper itself. The crane, for instance, appropriately designates the paper made by the Cranes, a family whose name has been long and prominently associated with the industry in this country. ♦Paper in the mechanical arts♦ The many and divers uses to which the paper product can be put have opened up a practically unlimited field to the originality and genius of the paper manufacturer, who has learned to so manipulate his raw materials as to permit of the finished product’s being substituted for iron, lumber, cloth, etc., and in many cases it better serves the desired purpose. As has already been stated, paper, considered in reference to its general quality and the method of manufacture, falls into three main divisions, viz., writing, print, and wrapping papers, but these divisions give only an inadequate idea of the many varieties. The most of these are obtained by the varying manipulations of paper already complete in one or another of the three forms. The various kinds of boards furnish an interesting example of one of the most comprehensive classes of paper. Bristol board, so named from the place where it was first manufactured, cardboard, pressboard, binder’s board, trunk-board, and the like, all hold very prominent positions in this, one of the most important of industries. The heavier of these boards are made by combining as many sheets of paper as are necessary to give the desired thickness, and then by using paste or applying hydraulic pressure, consolidating them. The number of sheets used is indicated by the word “ply,” used as a suffix, as two-ply, three-ply, four-ply, and so on.