The first step in the actual throwing is the winding of the thread on bobbins. The skeins are put on swifts—a light type of reel—and wound at a very high rate of speed on the proper size of bobbin. It is here that the winding strength of the silk meets its severest test, for constant breaks during the winding involve considerable expense when speed is such an important factor. [Sidenote: _Twisting_] The bobbins of silk are next taken to the twister, which combines two or more strands and gives the thread the necessary amount of twist for the special type that is desired. In the case of tram a very light twist is given, about two or three turns to the inch. For organzine the single threads are first given sixteen turns to an inch in one direction, then doubled and twisted fourteen turns in the other direction. [Sidenote: _Crepe_] Twisting is the basis of the manufacture of the various kinds of crepe. The filling or tram used is given a very hard twist, about sixty-five turns to the inch—either in right or left-hand direction. These threads are later woven alternately and so produce the crinkled effect. Thrown silk is classified in a similar way to raw silk, except that usually market quotations on thrown silks mention not only the classification but also the purpose for which it is to be used (tram or organzine), the size in deniers, the number of threads and twists to the inch. 2. SPUN SILK [Sidenote: _Spinning Waste Silk_] The above processes refer only to throwing of raw silk. In the case of waste, schappe, frisons, etc., an entirely different method must be used, comprising a series of operations very similar to the carding, combing and spinning of wool.[8] The gum, of which silk waste contains a very large proportion, must first be boiled off in a hot soapy bath or allowed to ferment in vats, the latter method being used more generally in Europe. After degumming, the waste silk is next washed and dried and allowed to absorb the 11 per cent moisture content, as in the case of the thrown silk. This is followed by picking, combing, and dressing to remove any dirt or other foreign matter and to separate the fibres and arrange them in parallel order. The silk is next separated into short laps, then drawn out into thin slivers by means of drawing frames, and thoroughly combed to make the fibres smooth and uniform. These slivers are finally made suitable for winding on bobbins by being passed through roving frames. Then follows the actual spinning process, which twists the roving into yarn. Different types of yarn are produced by varying the amount of twist and the number of strands used. Single yarn is made by twisting a single strand on itself, while for 2-ply, two yarns are twisted together, and so forth, as in the case of cotton or wool. After being cleaned and examined, the yarn is wound into skeins of about 5 ounces. [Sidenote: _Uses of Spun Silk_]