to gain on them so as to completely choke them. The principal silver mines were discovered in 1630, by an Indian shepherd, and though very badly wrought, they annually furnish near $2,500,000. These mines are usually called Pareo, and Cerro de Bombon. Humbolt calculates the produce of gold and silver at $6,000,000 annually. To this sum must be added the fraudulent exportation of silver, or what is denominated unregistered produce, on which no duty has been paid—this is estimated at $940,000. [91] Mercury is found is abundance in Peru, which is not the case in any other part of Spanish America. The other minerals are numerous. There are many obstacles, however, to successful mining in Peru. One great difficulty is the ignorance of the miners in the science of amalgamation. Another is the want of capital; the operator being in most cases, in necessitous circumstances, is obliged to borrow money on very exorbitant interest to enable him to commence his works, and to sell the produce of his mines at a great sacrifice, in order to carry them on. The labor of the mines is principally performed by the Indians, as they only are able to endure the fatigue and unwholesomeness of the employment. The commerce of Peru consists for the most part in the interchange of the precious metals for foreign products, and manufactures; of which considerable quantities are imported. There is a great want of good roads and bridges in Peru; and in the little intercourse between the seaports and the interior of the country, almost every article of trade is carried on the backs of mules and lamas. The ancient Peruvians were partially civilized; they constructed numerous and excellent roads, and also built stone palaces of enormous size; were skilled in making vessels of gold and silver, and cultivated the land with much care. At the time of the Spanish conquest, Peru comprised a territory of much greater dimensions, than the modern state of the same name. Its kings were a dynasty of princes, called Incas; they were supposed to be descended from the sun, and were held sacred and adored by the people. At the time Pizarro took possession of[92] this country, the reigning Incas were put to death, and the dominion of the Spanish sovereign established. This occurred forty years after the discovery of America. Peru with the other American provinces of Spain was long governed by Viceroys, appointed by the kings of that country; but in the year 1821, the people established a government of their own, and with the assistance of the Colombians achieved their independence in 1824, by the defeat of the last Spanish army at Ayachuco. In the year 1836, Peru was divided into the states of North Peru, and South Peru, which with Bolivia, were formed in the Peru-Bolivian confederation, under a chief magistrate styled the Supreme Protector. Three years afterwards, the army of the confederation was defeated by the Chilians, at Uraguay, and the Republic was dissolved.