Cicero does not therefore owe his prominence as a philosopher so much to his own profound independence of thought as to his skill in translating Greek thought to the Roman people. His metaphysics is an eclecticism that is at bottom a skepticism. In view of the existing philosophical warfare, he despaired of metaphysical or absolutely complete knowledge. Yet upon ethical and religious questions he spoke in no undecided manner, for in these realms he felt that we have more than merely probable evidence. Since he was unable to refute Skepticism in a scientific way, he took refuge in the immediate certainty of consciousness in all matters that pertain to morals and religion. There are certain ideas common to all men. These have not so much been taught to all men by nature as they are inborn in all. They are convictions implanted in us; there is a common human consciousness from which they are derived, and they are confirmed by universal opinion. Ethical and religious consciousness thus rests on immediate certainty. Man has the innate ideas of duty, immortality, and God. Our belief in God’s existence is supported by the teleological argument for Providence and divine government. The high dignity of man rests upon this innate conviction of freedom and immortality. Cicero shows his eclecticism by moderating the Stoic doctrine of virtue: virtue in itself is _vita beata_, but virtue plus happiness is _vita beatissima_. Unoriginal and eclectic as Cicero’s philosophical position may be, it is of great importance to the student of Roman history. CHAPTER XIII THE RELIGIOUS PERIOD (100 B. C.–476 A. D.) =The Two Causes of the Rise of Religious Feeling.= There were two causes for the turn of the time from its interest in individual practical ethics to religion. The first was an inner cause within the nature of the ethical philosophy of the Schools. The rise of the religious and the supernatural was the culmination of the undercurrent of skepticism in the validity of reason, which we found growing rapidly in the Ethical Period. The more the Schools grew alike in their teaching, the less were they able to assure their disciples of any certain insight into virtue and happiness. The Ethical Period ended in eclecticism, and this was the impeachment of the authority of each School. The Schools examined their dogmatic assumptions. The fundamental inner conviction grew stronger that the intellect of man is self-inconsistent: so inconsistent as to be undependable; so inconsistent as not to vouchsafe man the virtue and happiness which the Schools had promised. As Skepticism became more strongly intrenched, the imperturbable self-certainty of the Wise Man became shaken, the Ethical Period disappeared, and the Religious Period was born. Belief in the authority of the supernatural superseded belief in the authority of the reason.