=Storm and Stress.= After the issue was brought to a head by the nominalism of Roscellinus, the twelfth century was torn in battle over the reality of general ideas. The realists, on the one hand, tried to grade universals and to show how universals are related to particulars――all of which Anselm had left to faith. How do universals, such as the persons in the Trinity, the church, the sacraments, exist in one universal God? Grotesque explanations were offered, like the imaginative work of Bernard of Chartres and the symbolic number theory of his brother, Theodoric. William of Champeaux, a teacher of Abelard, almost reduced realism to a pantheism. Nothing exists but the universal; all individuals are accidental modifications of the universal. Pantheism was so inherent in the blood of realism that it was always appearing here and there. Such pantheistic deductions by the realists brought out nominalism in opposition, in spite of the repression of nominalism by the authorities of the church. The nominalists sought protection and authority under the name of Aristotle, for his conceptualist doctrine was not known at this time. The few writings of Aristotle then known were very imperfectly interpreted. One of the most ironical situations in the history of the Middle Ages is that, up to the Period of Classic Scholasticism, Plato was the authority of the orthodox and Aristotle of the heterodox. =The Life of Abelard= (1079–1142). Abelard had both Roscellinus and William of Champeaux as teachers. He quarreled with them both and set up a rival school of his own. He taught in various places and was, with some interruptions, in Paris from 1108 to 1136. The university did not exist until a generation after him, but he was its true founder, for he inaugurated the movement out of which the early universities sprang. His method was transferred from philosophy to theology and thence to all studies. It was a _didactic method_ of drawing conclusions after an empirical enumeration of the _pros_ and _cons_. Abelard was acquainted with no Greek writings except in Latin translations. His great talent as a teacher and his keen French intellect, that was impatient of all restraint, made him, however, the most brilliant of the schoolmen. Two synods condemned his teaching. Probably his modern popular reputation rests upon his unfortunate love-relations with Heloise.