The qualities in which he excelled were the evenness of his voice, the art of swelling its sound, the portamento, the union of the registers, a surprising agility, a graceful and pathetic style and a shake as admirable as it was rare.” A few other singers of this class may be mentioned: Giacchino Conti, called =Gizziello= (1714-1761), =Giovanni Carestini= (1705-1758?) a contralto, =Giuseppe Boschi=, the most celebrated basso of the 18th century, one of Handel’s singers, and =Girolamo Crescentini= (1766-1846). So much space has been given to these singers because their work laid the principles for vocal training that have ever since been the foundation upon which the great masters and singers of later times have built their art; to these principles has been given the name of the old Italian School of Singing. =Ill-effect of Virtuosity=.—The student who goes fully into the subject of the relation of singers to the opera will find that the great development of virtuosity among singers exerted an ill-effect and called forth a very pronounced reform in which Gluck was the leader. Singers were capable of such great vocal display, and the public showed so much enthusiasm for the brilliant feats of vocalism, and so great was the rivalry between singers and their partisans that composers vied with each other in their efforts to introduce the most difficult and florid passages possible. The text of an aria had no real value and became merely a vehicle upon which to place the dazzling vocalization of the singer. Dramatic truth was ruthlessly sacrificed. A singer, supposed to be in the very throes of death, would give a virtuosic display that would tax the lung power of a man in the most perfect physical condition. Gluck’s reform consisted in requiring that the arias should express the emotions suited to the situation, thus calling for expressive singing, not mere vocal display. The history of the opera and singing since then shows periods of change toward one idea or the other until the principles of Richard Wagner as to dramatic truth were generally accepted. REFERENCES. Grove.—Dictionary of Music and Musicians, articles on the singers mentioned in this lesson. QUESTIONS. What circumstances show that the church singers of the 13th to 16th centuries must have had considerable skill in singing? What was the influence of the opera on singing? What was the course of training required of young singers in the 17th century? What important work on singing dates from the early part of the 18th century? Give some of its principles. Describe the celebrated singers of this period and their work. What was the influence of vocal virtuosity on music? LESSON XXI. OPERA IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND.