But the effect of the reorganization of the government seemed to the adherents of the former Shōgun to work so much injustice to them that they rose in arms against the Sat-Chō [Satsuma-Chōshiu] combination which was then influential at court. This led, in 1867, to a civil war, which, after a severe struggle, culminated in 1868 in the complete triumph of the Imperialists. This event is what is called by some “the Restoration,” and by others “the Revolution.” This was, in fact, the climax of all the civil commotions of the period; the anti-foreign spirit and policy were only secondary to the prime purpose of overthrowing the usurpation of the Tokugawa Shōgunate and restoring the one legal Emperor to his lawful authority. And thus fell, not only the Tokugawa Dynasty, as had fallen other dynasties, of Shōguns, but also the whole system of a Shōgunate; and thus the Emperor of Japan became, not ruler in name and fame only, but sovereign in act and fact. From 1868 to the middle of 1912 Mutsuhito was Emperor both _de jure_ and _de facto_. IV. _Period of Reconstruction_ (1868-1878). CHRONOLOGY. 1868. Opening of Hyōgo (Kōbe) and Ōsaka. Emperor’s audience of foreign ministers. Yedo named Tōkyō and made capital. 1869. Opening of Yedo and Niigata. The “Charter Oath” of Japan. 1870. Light-houses, telegraphs. 1871. Postal system, mint, and dock. Feudalism abolished. _Eta_ and _hinin_ (outcasts) admitted to citizenship. Colonization in Yezo [Hokkaidō]. 1872. First railway, newspaper, church, and Missionary Conference. Imperial University in Tōkyō. Iwakura Embassy to America and Europe. 1873. Adoption of Gregorian calendar. Removal of anti-Christian edicts. Empress gave audience to foreign ladies. 1874. Saga Rebellion. Formosan Expedition. 1875. Assembly of Governors. Senate. Sakhalin traded off for Kurile Islands. 1876. Treaty with Korea. 1877. Satsuma Rebellion. First National Exhibition in Tōkyō. 1878. Bimetallism. Promise to establish Prefectural Assemblies. This period was one of laying the foundations of a New Japan, to be constructed out of the old, and was one of such kaleidoscopic changes and marvellous transformations in society, business, and administration that it is almost blinding to the eye to attempt to watch the work of reconstruction. There were abortive but costly attempts, like the Saga and the Satsuma rebellions, to check the progressive policy. It was the great period of “firsts,” of beginnings: the first audiences of foreign ministers by the Emperor and of foreign ladies by the Empress; the first telegraph, mint, dock, railroad, postal system, newspaper, exhibition, church, etc.; an assembly of provincial governors to confer together upon general policy, and a Senate.