A survey which omits from consideration trade across land-frontiers, and considers only sea-borne trade, is even more impressive. Of the total sea-borne trade of the world in 1912 it is estimated that 15% (in value) was between countries within the British Empire, and 39% was between the Empire and foreign countries. Thus the trade of which one or both terminals lay within the Empire was over _half_ of the maritime trade of the world. The trade of which one terminal was in the United Kingdom amounted by itself to about 40% of the world’s total sea-borne trade. =442. Chief causes of the rapid development of English commerce.=—The causes of this development may be summarized briefly as follows: (1) The English people were the most advanced, in industrial and mercantile ability, of any people in the world. They had the start on others in manufactures and trade, and reaped the benefits of their early training in this period. (2) The geographical situation of England, and the physical resources of the country, especially its coal, made the English superior to most peoples and equal to any, in this age of transportation and manufacture by steam. (3) The commercial policy of the government allowed the people to make the most of their advantages. Toward the close of the eighteenth century an English statesman had told Benjamin Franklin of his idea “to make England a free port, for which he said the English were especially fitted by nature, capital, love of enterprise, maritime connections, and position between the old and new world, and the north and south of Europe, and that those who were best circumstanced for trade could not but be gainers by having trade open.” This idea waited long for its realization, but on that account led to the more rapid progress when it was carried into effect. Within five years of the repeal of the corn laws exports rose fifty to one hundred million pounds sterling per annum; manufactures and trade developed by leaps and bounds. Free trade alone cannot be credited with all the progress that England made in this period. It was, perhaps, the least of the three factors enumerated, but still it was of such importance that the other two factors would have been of much less effect without it. =443. Character of English exports.=—This trade had now in a more pronounced form, the characteristics which it had been gradually assuming and which make it one of the most remarkable examples of advanced commerce in the world. Considering first the exports, we find that over three-fourths of them (in value) have consisted of wares wholly or mainly manufactured. Only one raw material has gone out in great quantity; this is coal, which has contributed about one-tenth of the total value of exports. Aside from coal few wares, and those of relatively slight importance, have left the islands in their crude form.