=110. Development of other cities in Italy; freedom and vigor of their policy.=—Space forbids the consideration in detail of the history and policy of other Italian cities, of which some rose to the first rank in commerce, though none attained to the greatness of Venice. The lack of a central government in the peninsula enabled each city to frame its policy solely with an eye to its own interests. The Italian cities were able to free themselves from the laws and customs that had been necessary in an earlier time, but which lay like fetters on developing trade and industry. The city of Florence, for instance, showed a liberality in its policy regarding land tenure, industry, domestic and foreign commerce, which was strikingly modern. The result was an extraordinarily rapid development in commerce, manufacture and finance, but also, unfortunately, a jealous rivalry between the cities, which expressed itself not only in commercial competition but also in destructive wars. =111. Genoa.=—Genoa, situated in a position corresponding to that of Venice on the other side of the Italian peninsula, grew great like her in the course of the crusades. In conflict with Pisa, which had become a threatening commercial rival, Genoa was a complete victor by the naval victory of Maloria in 1284. Against Venice the city was not so fortunate. Genoa recovered in part from the blow dealt her by Venice in the fourth crusade, when the Greek empire was re-established at Constantinople (1261), and won some important naval victories in the constant succession of wars culminating in the battle of Chioggia in 1380. The Genoese managed always to secure a share of the Oriental trade; they helped to establish the system of joint stock companies; and contributed to the development of banking and public finance. They lacked, however, the advantages of the Venetian situation, both as regarded their opportunity for trade and their capacity for defence. They were drawn into the net of continental politics, and as at home they had never shown the ability of the Venetians to pacify or to crush rival factions, their force was wasted in useless political conflicts.