“Whenever ulcers of the mouth are attacked by gangrene, it is necessary first to consider whether the whole body be unhealthy, and in that case, to do what is necessary to strengthen it. When the gangrenous ulcer is superficial, the use of _antheræ_ is sufficient; when it is somewhat deeper, a mixture must be applied on it, of two parts of burnt paper[124] to one of orpiment;[125] when it is very deep, three parts of burnt paper to a fourth part of orpiment must be used; or else, equal parts of roasted salt and roasted iris; or lastly, equal parts of chalcites, lime, and orpiment. It is, however, necessary to dip a small pledget of lint in oil of roses, and put it on the caustic medicinals, so that these may not injure the neighboring healthy parts. If the disease is in the gums, and some of the teeth are loose, it is necessary to pull them out, for they greatly hinder the cure. When this latter, however, cannot be obtained by drugs, the ulcer must be cauterized with a red-hot iron.” Chapter XII of the seventh book is, of all the work of Celsus, the one which presents to us the greatest interest, since there the author treats of the surgical operations required by the diseases of the dental apparatus. He first speaks of the looseness of the teeth, caused by the weakness of their roots, or by the flaccidity of the gums, and says that in these cases it is necessary to touch the gums lightly with a red-hot iron, then to smear them with honey and wash them with mulse, and later on to strengthen them by means of astringent substances. “When a tooth aches, and it is thought well to extract it, because medicaments are of no use, the gum must be detached all around, and then the tooth must be shaken until it is well loosened, it being very dangerous to draw a firm tooth, as this may sometimes give rise to a dislocation of the lower jaw. And greater still is the danger in regard to the upper teeth, as this might cause a shock to the temples and eyes. After having well loosened the tooth, it must be pulled out by the fingers, if this is possible; or if not, with the forceps.” [Illustration: FIG. 27 Dental and surgical instruments represented in a funeral marble of the Lateran Museum, Rome.] It is clear that this method of tooth drawing—so excessively cautious and timid—must have been very torturing to the poor patients. A thousand years and more after Celsus, Abulcasis still counsels the same exaggerated precautions, and says that the extraction of a tooth must not be performed in a rapid and violent way after the manner of the barbers. From this one may see that the operation spoken of was then very often performed by certain unprofessional persons, who, being very familiar with it, carried it out with great indifference and rapidity, thus sparing the patients the long-protracted martyrdom which the erudite doctors, followers of Celsus, thought necessary to make them endure. Very probably the same happened in the days of the wise Roman doctor.