It is sometimes erroneously thought that Nâgârjuna first preached the doctrine of S'ûnyavâda (essencelessness or voidness of all appearance), but in reality almost all the Mahâyâna sûtras either definitely preach this doctrine or allude to it. Thus if we take some of those sûtras which were in all probability earlier than Nâgârjuna, we find that the doctrine which Nâgârjuna expounded 127 with all the rigour of his powerful dialectic was quietly accepted as an indisputable truth. Thus we find Subhûti saying to the Buddha that vedanâ (feeling), samjñâ (concepts) and the sa@mskâras (conformations) are all mâyâ (illusion) [Footnote ref 1]. All the skandhas, dhätus (elements) and âyatanas are void and absolute cessation. The highest knowledge of everything as pure void is not different from the skandhas, dhâtus and âyatanas, and this absolute cessation of dharmas is regarded as the highest knowledge (_prajñâpâramitâ_) [Footnote ref 2]. Everything being void there is in reality no process and no cessation. The truth is neither eternal (_s'âs'vata_) nor non-eternal (_as'âs'vata_) but pure void. It should be the object of a saint's endeavour to put himself in the "thatness" (_tathatâ_) and consider all things as void. The saint (_bodhisattva_) has to establish himself in all the virtues (_pâramitâ_), benevolence (_dânapâramitâ_), the virtue of character (_s'îlapâramitâ_), the virtue of forbearance (_k@sântipâramitâ_), the virtue of tenacity and strength (_vîryyapâramitâ_) and the virtue of meditation (_dhyânapâramitâ_). The saint (_bodhisattva_) is firmly determined that he will help an infinite number of souls to attain nirvâ@na. In reality, however, there are no beings, there is no bondage, no salvation; and the saint knows it but too well, yet he is not afraid of this high truth, but proceeds on his career of attaining for all illusory beings illusory emancipation from illusory bondage. The saint is actuated with that feeling and proceeds in his work on the strength of his pâramitâs, though in reality there is no one who is to attain salvation in reality and no one who is to help him to attain it [Footnote ref 3]. The true prajñapâramitâ is the absolute cessation of all appearance (_ya@h anupalambha@h sarvadharmâ@nâm sa prajñâpâramitâ ityucyate_) [Footnote ref 4]. The Mahâyâna doctrine has developed on two lines, viz. that of S'ûnyavâda or the Mâdhyamika doctrine and Vijñânavâda. The difference between S'ûnyavâda and Vijñânavâda (the theory that there is only the appearance of phenomena of consciousness) is not fundamental, but is rather one of method. Both of them agree in holding that there is no truth in anything, everything is only passing appearance akin to dream or magic. But while the S'ûnyavâdins were more busy in showing this indefinableness of all phenomena, the Vijñânavâdins, tacitly accepting _______________________________________________________________ [Footnote 1: _A@s@tesâhasiihâprajñâpâramita_, p. 16.]