helps jîvas and pudgalas to keep themselves at rest. No substance could move if there were no dharma, or could remain at rest if there were no adharma. The necessity of admitting these two categories seems probably to have been felt by the Jains on account of their notion that the inner activity of the jîva or the atoms required for its exterior realization the help of some other extraneous entity, without which this could not have been transformed into actual exterior motion. Moreover since the jîvas were regarded as having activity inherent in them they would be found to be moving even at the time of liberation (moksa), which was undesirable; thus it was conceived that actual motion required for its fulfilment the help of an extraneous entity which was absent in the region of the liberated souls. The category of âkâs'a is that subtle entity which pervades the mundane universe (_loka_) and the transcendent region of liberated souls (_aloka_) which allows the subsistence of all other substances such as dharma, adharma, jîva, pudgala. It is not a mere negation and absence of veil or obstruction, or mere emptiness, but a positive entity which helps other things to interpenetrate it. On account of its pervasive character it is called _âkâs'âstikâya_ [Footnote ref 1]. Kâla and Samaya. Time (_kâla_) in reality consists of those innumerable particles which never mix with one another, but which help the happening of the modification or accession of new qualities and the change of qualities of the atoms. Kâla does not bring about the changes of qualities, in things, but just as âkas'a helps interpenetration and dharma motion, so also kâla helps the action of the transformation of new qualities in things. Time perceived as moments, hours, days, etc., is called _samaya_. This is the appearance of the unchangeable kâla in so many forms. Kâla thus not only aids the modifications of other things, but also allows its own modifications as moments, hours, etc. It is thus a dravya (substance), and the moments, hours, etc., are its paryâyas. The unit of samaya is the time required by an atom to traverse a unit of space by a slow movement. ___________________________________________________________________ [Footnote 1: _Dravyasamgrahav@rtti_, 19.] 199 Jaina Cosmography. According to the Jains, the world is eternal, without beginning or end. Loka is that place in which happiness and misery are experienced as results of virtue and vice. It is composed of three parts, _ûrdhva_ (where the gods reside), _madhya_ (this world of ours), and _adho_ (where the denizens of hell reside). The mundane universe (_lokâkas'a_) is pervaded with dharma which makes all movement possible. Beyond the lokâkas'a there is no dharma and therefore no movement, but only space (_âkas'a_). Surrounding this lokakâs'a are three layers of air. The perfected soul rising straight over the ûrdhvaloka goes to the top of this lokakâs'a and (there being no dharma) remains motionless there.