[Illustration: FIG. 160.—White River †titanothere (_†Titanotherium robustum_) males fighting. Restored from a skeleton in the American Museum of Natural History.] In the lowest of the three substages of the White River Oligocene the most conspicuous and abundant fossils are the †titanotheres, the latest members of which were huge animals of almost elephantine proportions. They belonged to four parallel, or rather slightly divergent, phyla, differing in the development of the horns, in the shape of the head and in the relative length and massiveness of the limbs. The teeth were all low-crowned, or brachyodont, the canines much too small to have been of any service as weapons and the incisors had curious little, button-shaped crowns, which can have had little or no functional importance, since they show hardly any wear, even in old animals. With such front teeth, a prehensile lip and long tongue would seem to have been necessary for gathering and taking in food. [Illustration: FIG. 161.—Second upper molar, left side, of _†Titanotherium_. _A._, masticating surface; _B._, outer side of crown.] The †titanotheres were one of two perissodactyl families in which the premolars never became so large and complex as the molars. The upper molars had a longitudinal outer wall, composed of two deeply concave cusps, and two internal conical cusps, but no transverse ridges; the lower molars were composed of two crescents, one behind the other, a pattern which was very widely distributed among the early and primitive artiodactyls and perissodactyls. The so-called “horns” were not strictly such, but a pair of bony protuberances from the front of the skull and, from their shape, could hardly have been sheathed in horn. The long, immensely broad and massive head resembled that of some fantastic rhinoceros, as did also the body and limbs. The brain was quite absurdly small, the cavity for it, lost in the huge skull, would hardly contain the fist of an ordinary man; these great beasts must have been incredibly dull and stupid, surpassing even the modern rhinoceroses in this respect. As is generally true in mammals which have horns, antlers, or similar weapons borne upon the skull, or very large tusks, the bones of the brain-case were made enormously thick and yet lightened by an intricate system of communicating cavities or “sinuses,” separated by many bony braces and supports connecting the inner and outer denser layers, which form the surfaces of the bones. In this way the skull is made strong enough without any proportionate increase of weight to endure the severe shock of impact, when the horns or tusks are made use of. The principle is the same as the engineer employs in designing a steel truss-bridge. The upper profile of the head was deeply concave, just as it is in those rhinoceroses which are armed with nasal horns. [Illustration: FIG. 162.—Skull of _†Titanotherium elatum_. American Museum.]