[342] In the couvade the father occupies the erroneously so-called lying-in bed; is nursed and otherwise cared for as if he were the mother: while he rigidly fasts or abstains from certain kinds of food. GIRAUD-TEULON, _Origines du mariage_, 138; BACHOFEN, _Mutterrecht_, 17, 255, 419; LETOURNEAU, _L'évolution du mariage_, 394-98; BERNHÖFT, in _ZVR._, IX, 417; and LUBBOCK, _Origin of Civilization_, 14 ff., 159, regard the couvade as a mark of transition. Such, in effect, is also the view of LIPPERT, _Kulturgeschichte_, II, 312; _Geschichte der Familie_, 213 ff., who believes the custom is a form of redemption-sacrifice rendered by the father instead of the actual sacrifice of the first-born child, a sacrifice exacted in the stage of earlier mother-right. HELLWALD, _Die mensch. Familie_, 361 ff., accepts the theory of Lippert. On the other hand, TYLOR, _Early History of Mankind_, chap, x, 297 ff.; STARCKE, _Primitive Family_, 51, 52, 283, 284; and DARGUN, _Mutterrecht und Vaterrecht_, 18-26, hold that it takes its rise in a supposed physical connection between father and child, and therefore that it exists for the welfare of the child alone. LUBBOCK, _op. cit._, 14 ff., emphasizes this fact, while regarding the practice as an evidence of transition. TYLOR, however, in his _Method of Investigating Institutions_, 254-56, accepts the view of Bachofen and Giraud-Teulon, relegating the explanation first assigned by him to a secondary place. ROTH, "On the Significance of the Couvade," _Jour. Anth. Inst._, XXII, 204-44, holds the custom to be a form of magic or witchcraft, resting on the belief in a physical connection between the father and child, and so implying power over the child. According to CRAWLEY, _Mystic Rose_, 416-28, the custom has its origin in sexual taboo. It is a case of "substitution." The father simulates the mother so that by exposing himself to the same danger he may help her and the child against the magical or evil influences which are especially harmful in the great sexual crises of human life. _Cf._ KOHLER, "Das Recht der Azteken," _ZVR._, XI, 49; MÜLLER, _Chips from a German Workshop_, II, 281, 278; PLOSS, _Das Kind_, I, 143-53; MUCKE, _Horde und Familie_, 219 ff.; FRIEDRICHS, in _Ausland_ (1890), 801, 837, 856, 877, 895; CHAMBERLAIN, _The Child and Childhood in Folk-Thought_, 124, 125. [343] STARCKE, _op. cit._, 52. See the preceding note; also LIPPERT, _Geschichte der Familie_, 213 ff., who criticises the use of the term "lying-in bed." [344] FUSTEL DE COULANGES, _Ancient City_, 47, 70, _passim_; see further, WESTERMARCK, _op. cit._, 107, 108; HOWITT, _Smithsonian Report_ (1883), 813; MAINE, _Early Law and Custom_, 203; WILKINSON, _Ancient Egyptians_, I, 320. [345] _Human Marriage_, 97. He insists on the powerful influence of names on the roles of succession: _ibid._, 111.