First, it may result from a struggle for women within the tribe. "There still exist rude tribes in which men fight for possession of women, the taking possession of a woman naturally comes as a sequence to an act of capture. That monopoly which constitutes her a wife in the only sense known by the primitive man is a result of successful violence."[357] Secondly, contrary to the view of Sir John Lubbock,[358] the symbol of rape may be due to the struggle of the bride and her female friends, many manifestations of which are found in the marriage customs of primitive races; though the dread of harsh treatment is thought to be an additional motive. But Starcke, doubting whether among savages there is much to choose between the brutality of the husband and that of the father, thinks the weeping of the woman merely symbolizes her sorrow "on leaving her former home; her close dependence on her family is expressed by her lamentation." The existence of such symbols is not surprising in "communities of which the family bond is the alpha and omega."[359] The ceremony of capture, finally, may be due to the resistance of the father and other male friends of the bride. A woman has an economic value, "not only as a wife but also as a daughter; and all through, from the lowest to the highest stages of social progress, we find a tacit or avowed claim to her service by her father." Her service is an object of purchase; and in English law "we have evidence that it was originally so among ourselves: in an action for seduction the deprivation of a daughter's services is the injury alleged."[360] [356] SPENCER, _Principles of Sociology_, I, 649-52. It should be noted that McLennan really ascribes the origin of exogamy to wife-capture, though, inadvertently seemingly, in one passage he refers it to a "primitive instinct." [357] See STARCKE, _op. cit._, 217, who thinks Spencer inconsistent with his own theory; for "if the rape of women can be practised within the tribe, it need no longer be assumed that a young man's ambition impels him to take a wife from another tribe." [358] _Origin of Civilization_, 111, 130. [359] STARCKE, _op. cit._, 217, 218. [360] SPENCER, _op. cit._, I, 652-60. Spencer is criticised by WESTERMARCK, _op. cit._, 311 ff.; STARCKE, _op. cit._, 215 ff.