[472] For wife-capture see MCLENNAN, _Studies_, I, 31 ff.; II, 57 ff., 268 ff., _passim_; _Patriarchial Theory_, chap, xiii; POST, _Familienrecht_, 97 ff., 137-57; _Geschlechtsgenossenschaft_, 54 ff.; _Ursprung des Rechts_, 47, 57; _Anfänge_, 209; _Grundlagen_, 229 ff.; 240; _Afrikanische Jurisprudenz_, I, 323 ff.; HELLWALD, _Die mensch. Familie_, 275-86; GROSSE, _Die Formen der Familie_, 105 ff.; ACHELIS, _Entwicklung der Ehe_, 79 ff.; KULISCHER, "Intercommunale Ehe durch Raub und Kauf," _ZFE._, X, 192 ff.; LETOURNEAU, _L'évolution du mariage_, 110-29; DARGUN, _Mutterrecht und Raubehe_; SCHROEDER, _Hochzeitsbräuche der Esten_, 14 ff.; WESTERMARCK, _Human Marriage_, 383-90; STARCKE, _Primitive Family_, 209 ff., _passim_; LUBBOCK, _Origin of Civilization_, 104-33; GIRAUD-TEULON, _Les origines_, 117 ff.; LIPPERT, _Geschichte der Familie_, 42 ff., 100 ff., 95-118, 148 ff.; _idem_, _Kulturgeschichte_, II, 93 ff., 103, 129; WAKE, _Marriage and Kinship_, 402-34, 246 ff., 305, 350; KOHLER, "Studien," _ZVR._, V, 334-68; FRIEDRICHS, "Familienstufen und Eheformen," _ibid._, X, 212, 213; BERNHÖFT, "Principien des europäischen Familienrechts," _ibid._, IX, 392-406; LEIST, _Alt-arisches Jus Gentium_, 126 ff.; ZMIGRODSKI, _Die Mutter_, 249 ff.; KAUTSKY, in _Kosmos_, XII, 256 ff., 338 ff.; HILDEBRAND, _Ueber das Problem_, 17 ff.; HEUSLER, _Institutionen_, II, 277-86; MUCKE, _Horde und Familie_, 108 ff., _passim_; SPENCER, in _Various Fragments_, 74 ff., replying to McLennan. According to McLennan, as we have already seen, capture as a means of getting wives is a universal practice among primitive men. It is due to polyandry occasioned by a scarcity of women; it leads to exogamy; and it is generally superseded by contract in the form of wife-purchase.[473] The evidence of the former universality of the custom is derived from two sources: first, the existence of actual wife-capture among many peoples in all parts of the world; second, the symbol of rape in the marriage ceremony or in the preliminary act of taking the woman. The symbol, it is held, can be accounted for only as a survival of real capture. Other writers agree with McLennan in regarding the evidence as conclusive. Such, in effect, is the view of Dargun, though he admits that it cannot with absolute certainty be assumed that capture was ever the only form of marriage recognized.[474] Post, on the other hand, declares that the universality of wife-stealing is beyond question; and he holds that it is a natural incident of the genealogical organization of society. It is connected in the closest manner with the exogamous system peculiar to that organization, appearing as one of the means by which marriage can be brought about between members of different gentile groups. It was, in short, the legal means of procuring a wife.[475] [473] MCLENNAN, _Studies_, I, chaps. ii-vi, _passim_; _Patriarchal Theory_, chap. xiii.