consumed 37,488,565 ducats (nearly $600,000,000) in the space of eleven years, 1598 to 1609, and other campaigns were costly in proportion,--and this in spite of the fact that supplies were often not provided and salaries were left unpaid, leading to tumults on the part of the soldiery. To gain an adequate idea of the vastness of these sums one must bear in mind, not only the greater purchasing power of money in that day and the comparatively small population of the peninsula, especially the small number of taxpayers, but also the fact that the resources of the Spanish state then were as little, as compared with those of the present day, as they were great in comparison with those of medieval Spain. [Sidenote: Tremendous increase in taxation in Castile.] It is no wonder that the people through their representatives in the _Cortes_ began to ask for peace and the termination of military adventures, even in the period when victories were frequent; the nobles also favored an end of the wars,--when the kings endeavored to get them, too, to grant a subsidy. One result of the greater financial requirements of the state was an increase in taxation, both in the collection of the existing taxes at a higher rate, and in the imposition of new ones. The grants, or _servicios_, of the Castilian _Cortes_ were frequent and large in amount. In 1538 there appeared the new tax of the _millones_, so-called because it was calculated in millions of ducats. This was an excise on articles of prime necessity,--meat, wine, oil, and vinegar. It was extended soon to powder, lead, sulphur, red ochre, vermilion, sealing-wax, and playing cards, which together were called the _siete rentillas_ (seven little rents). Salt, gold, silver, mercury, and many other materials were the subject of a state monopoly, and to them were added in the reign of Philip IV the monopoly on tobacco, which was to prove an exceptionally profitable source of revenue. The _diezmo_ and _cruzada_ (otherwise Bula) continued to be collected from the church, together with several new rents which were authorized by the pope. One of these was the _subsidio de galeras_ (subsidy of the galleys), or _galeras_, so-called because it was theoretically designed to assist in the expenses of the galleys used in fighting the Moslem peoples. This was granted in 1561, and consisted of an annual subsidy of 420,000 ducats (over $6,000,000). The _alcabala_ and the various customs duties were increased. Stamp taxes were extended to new types of documents. The nobles were required to pay a tax called _lanzas_ (lances) in lieu of military service. Various offices and titles were made subject to the _media anata_ (half annates), a discount of a half year’s salary, or rents, in the first year of enjoyment. The transmission of a title of nobility to one’s heir was also taxed. Vanity was seized upon as likely to yield a revenue, and money was collected in return for the privilege of using the word “_Don_” before one’s