provoke counter-movements towards quietism, spiritual authority, and emotional faith. But although Ṣúfiism was not called into being by any impulse from without (this is too obvious to require argument), the influences of which I am about to speak have largely contributed to make it what it is, and have coloured it so deeply that no student of the history of Ṣúfiism can afford to neglect them. [Sidenote: Ma‘rúf al-Karkhí († 815 A.D.).] Towards the end of the eighth century of our era the influence of new ideas is discernible in the sayings of Ma‘rúf al-Karkhí († 815 A.D.), a contemporary of Fuḍayl b. ‘Iyáḍ and Shaqíq of Balkh. He was born in the neighbourhood of Wásiṭ, one of the great cities of Mesopotamia, and the name of his father, Fírúz, or Fírúzán, shows that he had Persian blood in his veins. Ma‘rút was a client (_mawlá_) of the Shí‘ite Imám, ‘Alí b. Músá al-Riḍá, in whose presence he made profession of Islam; for he had been brought up as a Christian (such is the usual account), or, possibly, as a Ṣábian. He lived during the reign of Hárún al-Rashíd in the Karkh quarter of Baghdád, where he gained a high reputation for saintliness, so that his tomb in that city is still an object of veneration. He is described as a God-intoxicated man, but in this respect he is not to be compared with many who came after him. Nevertheless, he deserves to stand at the head of the mystical as opposed to the ascetic school of Ṣúfís. He defined Ṣúfiism as "the apprehension of Divine realities and renunciation of human possessions."[726] Here are a few of his sayings:-- "Love is not to be learned from men; it is one of God's gifts and comes of His grace. "The Saints of God are known by three signs: their thought is of God, their dwelling is with God, and their business is in God. "If the gnostic (_‘árif_) has no bliss, yet he himself is in every bliss. "When you desire anything of God, swear to Him by me." From these last words, which Ma‘rúf addressed to his pupil Sarí al-Saqaṭí, it is manifest that he regarded himself as being in the most intimate communion with God. [Sidenote: Abú Sulaymán al-Dárání († 830 A.D.).] Abú Sulaymán († 830 A.D.), the next great name in the Ṣúfí biographies, was also a native of Wásiṭ, but afterwards emigrated to Syria and settled at Dárayá (near Damascus), whence he is called 'al-Dárání.' He developed the doctrine of gnosis (_ma‘rifat_). Those who are familiar with the language of European mystics--_illuminatio_, _oculus cordis_, &c.--will easily interpret such sayings as these:-- "None refrains from the lusts of this world save him in whose heart there is a light that keeps him always busied with the next world. "When the gnostic's spiritual eye is opened, his bodily eye is shut: they see nothing but Him.