Williamson, _Maritime Enterprise, 1485-1558_ (1913); E. J. Payne (editor), _Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen to America_, 2 vols. (1893-1900); L. G. Tyler, _England in America, 1580-1652_ (1904), Vol. IV of "American Nation" Series; George Edmundson, _Anglo-Dutch Rivalry, 1600-1653_ (1911). France: R. G. Thwaites, _France in America, 1497-1763_ (1905), Vol. VII of "American Nation" Series. ECONOMIC RESULTS OF THE COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION. William Cunningham, _An Essay on Western Civilization in its Economic Aspects_, Vol. II, _Mediaeval and Modern Times_ (1910), pp. 162-224, and, by the same author, ch. xv of Vol. I (1902) of the _Cambridge Modern History_; E. P. Cheyney, _Social Changes in England in the Sixteenth Century_ (1912); George Unwin, _Industrial Organization in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries_ (1904); G. Cawston and A. H. Keane, _Early Chartered Companies_ (1896); W. R. Scott, _The Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish, and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to 1720_, Vol. I (1912); C. T. Carr (editor), _Select Charters of Trading Companies_ (1913); Beckles Willson, _The Great Company_ (1899), an account of the Hudson Bay Company; Henry Weber, _La Compagnie française des Indes, 1604-1675_ (1904); _Recueil des voyages de la Compagnie des Indes orientales des Hollandois_, 10 vols. (1730), the monumental source for the activities of the chief Dutch trading-company. CHAPTER III EUROPEAN POLITICS IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY THE EMPEROR CHARLES V As we look back upon the confused sixteenth century, we are struck at once by two commanding figures,--the Emperor Charles V [Footnote: Charles I of Spain.] and his son Philip II,--about whom we may group most of the political events of the period. The father occupies the center of the stage during the first half of the century; the son, during the second half. [Sidenote: Extensive Dominions of Charles] At Ghent in the Netherlands, Charles was born in 1500 of illustrious parentage. His father was Philip of Habsburg, son of the Emperor Maximilian and Mary, duchess of Burgundy. His mother was the Infanta Joanna, daughter and heiress of Ferdinand of Aragon and Naples and Isabella of Castile and the Indies. The death of his father and the incapacity of his mother--she had become insane--left Charles at the tender age of six years an orphan under the guardianship of his grandfathers Maximilian and Ferdinand. The death of the latter in 1516 transferred the whole Spanish inheritance to Charles, and three years later, by the death of the former, he came into possession of the hereditary dominions of the Habsburgs. Thus under a youth of nineteen years were grouped wider lands and greater populations than any Christian sovereign had ever ruled. Vienna, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Brussels, Milan, Naples, Madrid, Cadiz,--even the City of Mexico,--owed him allegiance. His titles alone would fill several pages.