The variation of the length of the seconds pendulum observed by Richer in his Cayenne expedition (chapter VIII., § 161) had been the first indication of a deviation of the earth from a spherical form. Newton inferred, both from these pendulum experiments and from an independent theoretical investigation (chapter IX., § 187), that the earth was spheroidal, being flattened towards the poles; and this view was strengthened by the satisfactory explanation of precession to which it led (chapter IX., § 188). On the other hand, a comparison of various measurements of arcs of the meridian in different latitudes gave some support to the view that the earth was elongated towards the poles and flattened towards the equator, a view championed with great ardour by the Cassini school. It was clearly important that the question should be settled by more extensive and careful earth-measurements. The essential part of an ordinary measurement of the earth consists in ascertaining the distance in miles between two places on the same meridian, the latitudes of which differ by a known amount. From these two data the length of an arc of a meridian corresponding to a difference of latitude of 1° at once follows. The =latitude= of a place is the angle which the vertical at the place makes with the equator, or, expressed in a slightly different form, is the angular distance of the zenith from the celestial equator. The =vertical= at any place may be defined as a direction perpendicular to the surface of still water at the place in question, and may be regarded as perpendicular to the true surface of the earth, accidental irregularities in its form such as hills and valleys being ignored.[123] The difference of latitude between two places, north and south of one another, is consequently the angle between the verticals there. Fig. 78 shews the verticals, marked by the arrowheads, at places on the same meridian in latitudes differing by 10°; so that two consecutive verticals are inclined in every case at an angle of 10°. [Illustration: FIG. 78.—The varying curvature of the earth.]