represented the spring; _factio russata_, red, the summer; _factio veneta_, azure, the autumn; and _factio alba_ or _albata_, white, the winter. Originally there were but two factions, _albata_ and _russata_, and consequently only two chariots started at each race. The driver stood in his car within the reins, which went round his back. This enabled him to throw all his weight against the horses, by leaning backwards; but it greatly enhanced his danger in case of an upset. To avoid this peril, a sort of knife or bill-hook was carried at the waist, for the purpose of cutting the reins in a case of emergency. When all was ready, the doors of the carceres were flung open, and the chariots were formed abreast of the _alba linea_ by men called _moratores_ from their duty; the signal for the start was then given by the person who presided at the games, sometimes by sound of trumpet, or more usually by letting fall a napkin; whence the Circensian games are called _spectacula mappae_. The _alba linea_ was then cast off, and the race commenced, the extent of which was seven times round the _spina_, keeping it always on the left. A course of seven circuits was termed _unus missus_, and twenty-five was the number of races run in each day, the last of which was called _missus aerarius_, because in early times the expense of it was defrayed by a collection of money (_aes_) made amongst the people. The victor descended from his car at the conclusion of the race, and ascended the _spina_, where he received his reward (_bravium_, from the Greek βραβεῖον), which consisted in a considerable sum of money. [Illustration: Chariot Race in the Circus. (Florentine Gem.)] The horse-racing followed the same rules as the chariots. The enthusiasm of the Romans for these races exceeded all bounds. Lists of the horses (_libella_), with their names and colours, and those of the drivers, were handed about, and heavy bets made upon each faction; and sometimes the contests between two parties broke out into open violence and bloody quarrels, until at last the disputes which originated in the circus had nearly lost the Emperor Justinian his crown.--II. LUDUS TROJAE, a sort of sham-fight, said to have been invented by Aeneas, performed by young men of rank on horseback, and often exhibited by the emperors.--III. PUGNA EQUESTRIS ET PEDESTRIS, a representation of a battle, upon which occasions a camp was formed in the circus.--IV. CERTAMEN GYMNICUM. See ATHLETAE, and the references to the articles there given.--V. [VENATIO.]--VI. [NAUMACHIA.] [Illustration: Cisium. (From monument at Igel, near Treves.)]