left share-beam and the _stiva_ to the right, so that the plough of Virgil was more like the modern Lancashire plough, which is commonly held behind with both hands. Sometimes, however, the _stiva_ was used alone and instead of the _buris_ or tail. In place of _stiva_ the term _capulus_ is sometimes employed. The only other part of the plough requiring notice is the coulter (_culter_), which was used by the Romans as it is with us. It was inserted into the pole so as to depend vertically before the share, cutting through the roots which came in its way, and thus preparing for the more complete overturning of the soil by the share. Two small wheels were also added to some ploughs. The plough, as described by Virgil, corresponds in all essential particulars with the plough now used about Mantua and Venice. The Greeks and Romans usually ploughed their land three times for each crop. The first ploughing was called _proscindere_, or _novare_ (νεοῦσθαι, νεάζεσθαι); the second _offringere_, or _iterare_; and the third, _lirare_, or _tertiare_. The field which underwent the “proscissio” was called _vervactum_ or _novale_ (νεός), and in this process the coulter was employed, because the fresh surface was entangled with numberless roots which required to be divided before the soil could be turned up by the share. The term “_offringere_” from _ob_ and _frangere_, was applied to the second ploughing; because the long parallel clods already turned up were broken and cut across, by drawing the plough through them at right angles to its former direction. The field which underwent this process was called _ager iteratus_. After the second ploughing the sower cast his seed. Also the clods were often, though not always, broken still further by a wooden mallet, or by harrowing (_occatio_). The Roman ploughman then, for the first time, attached the earth-boards to his share. The effect of this adjustment was to divide the level surface of the “ager _iteratus_” into ridges. These were called _porcae_, and also _lirae_, whence came the verb _lirare_, to make ridges, and also _delirare_, to decline from the straight line. The earth-boards, by throwing the earth to each side in the manner already explained, both covered the newly-scattered seed, and formed between the ridges furrows (αὔλακες, _sulci_) for carrying off the water. In this state the field was called _seges_ and τρίπολος. When the ancients ploughed three times only, it was done in the spring, summer, and autumn of the same year. But in order to obtain a still heavier crop, both the Greeks and the Romans ploughed four times, the proscissio being performed in the latter part of the preceding year, so that between one crop and another two whole years intervened. [Illustration: Aratrum, Plough (now used at Mantua). 1. Buris. 2. Temo. 3. Dentale. 4. Culter. 5. Vomer. 6 6. Aures.] ARBĬTER. [JUDEX.]