In 1793 the Philanthropinum at Dessau was closed permanently. Its teachers were scattered through Europe, and gave a great impulse to the new education. An unfortunate result of this popularity was that the Philanthropinum became a fad, and schools with this name were opened everywhere in Germany by educational mountebanks. These teachers prostituted the system to their own ends, degraded the profession into a mere trade, and became the subject of much satire and ridicule. Nevertheless, the philanthropinic movement seems not to have been without good results, especially when we consider the educational conditions and the pedagogy of the times. It introduced many new ideas concerning methods and industrial training into all parts of France and Switzerland, as well as Germany, and these were carefully worked out by such reformers as Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Herbart. In this way there were embodied in education the first positive results of Rousseau’s ‘naturalism.’ [Illustration: Fig. 25.--The child as a miniature adult. (Reproduced from a French fashion plate of the eighteenth century.)] [Illustration: Fig. 26.--A naturalistic school. (Reproduced from the _Elementarwerk_ of Basedow.)] SUPPLEMENTARY READING Graves, _In Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), chap. II; and _Great Educators_ (Macmillan, 1912), chaps. VII and VIII; Monroe, _Text-book_ (Macmillan, 1905), chap. X; Parker, S. C., _History of Modern Elementary Education_ (Ginn, 1912), chaps. VIII-X. The _Emile_ (Translated by Payne; Appleton, 1895) should be read, and the _Elementarwerk_ (Wiegandt, Leipzig, 1909) should be examined. A judicial description of the life and work of Rousseau is that by Morley, J. (Macmillan), while Davidson, T., furnishes an interesting interpretation of _Rousseau and Education from Nature_ (Scribner, 1902), but the standard treatise on _The Educational Theory of Rousseau_ (Longmans, Green, 1911) at present has been written by Boyd, W. A good brief account of _Basedow: His Educational Work and Principles_ (Kellogg, New York, 1891) is afforded by Lang, O. H. See also Barnard, H., _American Journal of Education_, vol. V, pp. 487-520. CHAPTER XX PHILANTHROPY IN EDUCATION OUTLINE In England, during the eighteenth century, there were numerous attempts to provide education for the poor through charity schools. The most important factor in maintaining these institutions was the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge. Among other organizations, there sprang up a Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, which supported schools throughout the American colonies, except Virginia. Charity schools were also maintained in America by various other agencies. An attempt was likewise made by Raikes of Gloucester, England, to establish Sunday schools, for training the poor to read, and these institutions spread throughout the British Isles and America.