A further movement in industrial education has been found in the establishment of such schools as Carlisle, Hampton, and Tuskegee, which adopted this training as a solution for peculiar racial problems. But the original idea of Pestalozzi, to secure redemption through manual labor, has been embodied in American institutions since 1873, when Miss Mary Carpenter, the English prison reformer, visited the United States. Contract labor and factory work in the reformatories then began to be replaced by farming, gardening, and kindred domestic industries. At the present time, moreover, the schools for delinquents and defectives in the New England, Middle Atlantic, Middle West, and most of the Southern states, have the Fellenberg training, though without much grasp of the educational principles involved. Finally, there has also been a growing tendency in the twentieth century to employ industrial training or trade education for the sake of holding pupils longer in school and increasing the efficiency of the public system. In so far as it has tended to replace the more general values of manual training, once so popular, with skill in some particular industrial process, this modern movement represents a return from the occupational work started by Froebel to the philanthropic practice of Fellenberg and Pestalozzi. SUPPLEMENTARY READING Graves, _In Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), chap. V; and _Great Educators_ (Macmillan, 1912), chap. IX; Monroe, _Textbook_ (Macmillan, 1905), pp. 597-622; Parker, _Modern Elementary Education_ (Ginn, 1912), chaps. XIII-XVI. The _Leonard and Gertrude_ has been well arranged for English readers in the edition of Eva Channing (Heath, 1896) and _How Gertrude Teaches Her Children_ has been translated by Lucy E. Holland and Frances C. Turner (Bardeen, 1898). The standard English treatises on Pestalozzi are Guimps, R. de, _Pestalozzi, His Aim and Work_ (Appleton, 1890); Holman, H., _Pestalozzi_ (Longmans, 1908); Krüsi, H., _Pestalozzi, His Life, Work, and Influence_ (American Book Co., 1875); Pinloche, A., _Pestalozzi and the Foundation of the Modern Elementary School_ (Scribner, 1901), and, more recently, Green, J. A., _Life and Work of Pestalozzi_ (Clive, London, 1913) and _Pestalozzi’s Educational Writings_ (Longmans, Green, 1912). Monroe, W. S., has furnished an interesting _History of the Pestalozzian Movement in the United States_ (Bardeen, 1907). _The Institutions of De Fellenberg_ were fully described by King, W. (London, 1842); and by Barnard, H., in his _American Journal of Education_, vol. III, pp. 591-596; XIII, 323-331; and XXVI, 359-368. CHAPTER XXIII DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES OUTLINE During the second quarter of the nineteenth century a third period in the educational history of America, marked by further democratization and a great expansion of public education, appeared.