But Froebel has had a most happy effect upon education as a whole. In some respects he utilized features from other reformers. We can see that he adopted many of Pestalozzi’s objective methods in geography, natural history, arithmetic, language, drawing, writing and reading, and constructive geometry; reiterated Rousseau’s views upon the infallibility of nature; and advocated the physical training and excursions as a means of study that are stressed by both these reformers. In his use of stories, legends, fables, and fairy-tales, he paralleled his contemporary, Herbart, in his influence upon the curriculum. But in his emphasis upon motor expression and social participation, together with his advocacy of a school without books or set tasks, Froebel was unique, and made a most distinctive contribution to educational practice. And whenever the real significance of his principles has been comprehended, they have been recognized as the most essential laws in the educational process, and are valued as the means of all effective teaching. [Sidenote: Contribution to all stages of education.] [Sidenote: Manual training through Cygnæus] [Sidenote: and Salomon.] [Sidenote: Parker and Dewey.] Froebel himself never fully worked out his theories in connection with schooling beyond the kindergarten, but all stages of education have now come to realize the value of discovering and developing individuality by means of initiative, execution, and coöperation; and spontaneous activities, like play, construction, and occupational work, have become more and more the means to this end. For example, the ‘busy work,’ ‘whittling,’ ‘clay-modeling,’ ‘sloyd,’ and other types of ‘manual training’ have to a large degree sprung from the influence of Froebel. Uno Cygnæus (1810-1888), who started the manual training movement, owed his inspiration to Froebel and his own desire to extend the kindergarten occupations through the grades. As a result of his efforts, Finland in 1866 became the first country in the world to adopt manual training as an integral part of the course in the elementary and teacher training schools. In 1874, through the visit of Otto Salomon (1849-1907) to Cygnæus, Sweden transformed its sloyd from a system of teaching the elements of trades to the more educative method of manual training. This use of constructive and occupational work for educational purposes rather than for industrial efficiency soon spread throughout Europe, and was first suggested to the United States by the Centennial Exposition of 1876 at Philadelphia. Various types of modern educational theory and practice, especially those associated with experiments made in the United States, also reveal large elements of Froebelian influence. Among these might be included the work of Colonel Parker (Fig. 40) and of Professor John Dewey. The Froebelian emphasis upon motor expression, the social aspect of education, and informal schooling are evident throughout Parker’s