During the nineteenth century new institutions for the cultivation of science in application to practical and technological purposes have developed from technical schools of a more elementary character. While known as ‘technical high schools’ (_Technische Hochschulen_), they are institutions of higher learning, and exist side by side with the universities. They include schools of engineering, mining, forestry, agriculture, veterinary medicine, and commerce. [Illustration: DIAGRAM OF GERMAN EDUCATION Fig. 48.] [Sidenote: First agitation for elementary education during the Revolution.] =Educational Development in France.=--The development of a centralized system of education in France began almost a century later than in Germany. During the eighteenth and the early nineteenth century the different monarchic powers were not at all favorable to training the masses, and popular education was badly neglected. It required several revolutions in government and the establishment of a permanent republic, to break the old traditions completely, and to make it evident that universal suffrage should be accompanied by universal education. Just after the middle of the eighteenth century the revolutionary spirit began to manifest itself with the appearance of Rousseau’s _Emile_ (see p. 222), and, except for the training started by the Christian Brothers (see p. 140), the first serious attention was given to elementary education. Rolland, to whom a general plan for reorganization had been committed, recommended universal education and an adequate number of training schools for teachers. While his proposals were not adopted, they were the basis of much of the short-lived legislation that arose during the Revolution, and of the great principles of educational administration that have since been established. [Sidenote: Napoleon and the University of France.] Napoleon, from the beginning, endeavored to reorganize education upon a better basis, and when he had become emperor, ordered all the lycées, secondary colleges, and faculties of higher education to be united in a single corporation, dependent upon the state and known as the ‘University of France’ (1808). This decree of centralization divided the country into twenty-seven administrative ‘academies,’ each of which was to establish university faculties of letters and science near the principal lycées. [Sidenote: Through Guizot primary schools began.]