A very large majority of the water-closets in use throughout the world are either very imperfectly flushed "hoppers," which are generally foul and which are often defective in their traps, or that worst of all forms, known as the "pan" closet, where a slight depth of water is held in the bowl by a hinged pan closing over its outlet. This pan swings in an iron chamber under the bowl, which is entirely cut off from ventilation, which is generally foul with adhering fecal matter, and which as an abomination has no equal in the whole range of plumbing appliances. The closet of which it forms a part has everything to condemn it, and only its cheapness and its apparent cleanliness, and the habit of the world in its use, to commend it. If flushed, as it usually is, by a valve on the supply-pipe, it is rarely flushed adequately, and its use not seldom leads to an indraft {218} of foul air (or worse) into the main water-supply system of the house. Such closets may be easily inspected as to their condition by shutting off the water-supply, opening the pan, and lowering a candle into the container below. Such an inspection will almost invariably disclose an extremely and dangerously filthy condition. Yet the worst part of the container, that which never receives an adequate flush, is even then concealed from view by the pan being thrown back against it. The nose will here be a good adjunct to the eye, and the odor escaping from this filthy interior chamber will generally afford convincing testimony of the impropriety of allowing such a vessel to remain in use. It is a rule almost without exception that closets, except perhaps on the first floor of the house, which are flushed by valves connected with the bowls, are to be condemned. However good or however bad the state of a closet thus supplied with water, its condition will always be improved by giving it a copious flush from an elevated cistern delivering never less than two and a half gallons of water at each use, and delivering it through a pipe so large and so direct as to secure a thorough cleansing at every discharge. It would be out of place here to enter into a detailed description of the various closets which are and which are not to be recommended for use. So far as the physician's inspection is concerned, it is perhaps sufficient to say that wherever an odor, however slight, can be perceived, and wherever a fouling of the interior surfaces of the closets or of the spaces under the seat can be detected by the eye, radical reformation is necessary. The only safety with a water-closet, as with any other vessel connected with the drainage of the house, is to secure an immediate and complete washing away of all foul matter of every kind. Where this result is not attained, it should be insisted upon. This much lies within the province of the medical attendant; the manner in which it shall be secured is not necessarily for him to decide.