The =thoracic vertebræ=, thirteen in number, are larger than those of the horse. The =bodies= are longer and are distinctly constricted in the middle. They bear a thin-edged ventral crest. The =arches=—in addition to the usual notches, which are shallow—are perforated in the posterior part by a foramen. The =transverse processes= are thick and strong, and bear rounded mammillary processes (except at the posterior end of the series); the last two, although prominent, do not always articulate with the ribs. The =spinous processes= are long. The first is much higher than in the horse, the next two are usually the most prominent, and behind this there is a very gradual diminution in height. The backward slope, slight at first, increases to the tenth; the last is vertical and lumbar in character. The summit is usually pointed on the first, and the thickening on those further back is less than in the horse. The width diminishes from the fifth to the eleventh usually. Both borders of the spines are in general thin and sharp, but the last three or four sometimes have thick posterior margins. [Illustration: FIG. 88.—SKELETON OF COW. _1.H._, Atlas; _7.H._, seventh cervical vertebra; _1.R._, first thoracic vetrebra; _6.R._, sixth rib; _12.R._, twelfth thoracic vertebra; _13.R._, last rib; _1.L._, first, _6.L._, last lumbar vertebra; _K_, sacrum; _1.S._, first coccygeal vertebra; _6.K._, sixth costal cartilage; _x_, wing of atlas; _1_, scapula; _1′_, cartilage of scapula; _2_, spine of scapula; _3_, acromion; _4_, humerus; _4′_, external condyle of humerus; _5_, external tuberosity of humerus; _6_, deltoid tuberosity; _7_, ulna; _8_, olecranon; _9_, radius; _10_, carpus; _11_, accessory carpal bone; _12_, metacarpus; _13_, phalanges; _14_, sternum; _14′_, manubrium; _14″_, xiphoid cartilage; _15_, ilium; _16_, external angle of ilium; _16′_, internal angle of ilium; _17_, tuber ischii; _18_, femur; _19_, trochanter major; _20_, patella; _21_, tibia; _21′_, external condyle of tibia; _22_, tarsus; _23_, distal end of fibula; _24_, tuber calcis; _25_, metatarsus; _26_, phalanges. (After Ellenberger-Baum, Anat. für Künstler.) ]