Each typical vertebra presents two pairs of articular processes, which form diarthroses with the two adjacent vertebræ. The =articular surfaces= are extensive, flat, and oval in the cervical region, small and flat in the thoracic region, while in the lumbar region the anterior ones are concave and the posterior convex. The joint capsule is strong and ample in the cervical region, in conformity with the large size and greater mobility of these joints in the neck. In the thoracic and lumbar regions the capsule is small and close. These joints are arthrodia. Associated with these joints are the =ligamenta flava=, which connect the arches of adjacent vertebræ. They are membranous and consist largely of elastic tissue. [Illustration: FIG. 140.—LIGAMENTUM NUCHÆ OF HORSE. _1_, Scapula; _1′_, cartilage of scapula; _4_, lamellar part of ligamentum nuchæ; _x_, wing of atlas. (After Ellenberger-Baum, Anat. für Künstler.) ] The =supraspinous ligament= extends medially from the occipital bone to the sacrum. From the withers backward it consists of a strong cord of fibrous tissue, attached to the summits of the vertebral spines. In the neck and withers it is remarkably modified to form the ligamentum nuchæ, which requires more extended notice. The =ligamentum nuchæ= is a powerful elastic apparatus, the principal function of which is to assist the extensor muscles of the head and neck. It extends from the occipital bone to the withers, where it is directly continuous with the supraspinous ligament. It consists of two parts—funicular and lamellar. The =funicular part= (Pars occipitalis) arises from the external occipital protuberance and the fossa below it, and is inserted into the summits of the vertebral spines at the withers. Two =bursæ= are usually found under it in the adult. The =supra-atloid bursa= lies between the ligament and the dorsal arch of the atlas. The =supraspinous bursa= occurs usually over the fourth thoracic spine, but may be over the third and may extend to the fifth.[31] In the neck the funicular part consists for the greater part of two bands closely applied and attached to each other. Near and at the withers it broadens greatly, forming an expansion three to five inches (ca. 8 to 12.5 cm.) in width, the lateral margins of which are thin and overlie the trapezius and rhomboideus muscles. Behind the higher spines it becomes narrower and thinner, and is continued by the white fibrous lumbo-dorsal ligament.[32] A mass of fat and elastic tissue lies upon the ligament as far back as the withers. It varies greatly in amount in different subjects, and is most developed in stallions of draft breeds, in which it forms the basis of the “crest.” The =lamellar portion= (Pars cervicalis) consists of two laminæ separated medially by a layer of loose connective tissue. Each lamina is formed of digitations which arise from the second and third thoracic spines and from the funicular